Учебно-методический комплекс для студентов специальности 080115 Таможенное дело
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Лексический тест по теме: “Government System of the USA and Great Britain” Из предложенных вариантов (А, B,C, D, E) выберите правильный: 1. The monarch of Great Britain takes____ part in the decision-making process. A. an active B. no C. a great D. distinctive E exclusive 2. The members of the House of Commons are elected by the ____. A. Queen B. people C. Lord Chancellor D. ministers E. Speaker 3. The House of Commons is presided over by the ____ . A.. Speaker B. Queen C. Lord Chancellor D. peeresses E. Prime Minister 4. British Prime Minister is the ____ . A. majority party leader B. member of the opposition C. leader of the opposition D. Chairman of the House of Lords E. Conservative party representative 5. The members of the British Cabinet of Ministers are chosen by the _____. A. people B. Lord- Chancellor C. Queen D. Prime- minister E. Speaker 6. The job of the American Congress is to _____. A. enforce laws B. make laws C. restrict laws D. veto laws E. put the laws into effect 7. The US Supreme Court consists of 9 justices. They are appointed by the____. A. Senate B. Congress C. Vice-President D. Chief Justice E. President 8. When the President receives a bill from the Congress, he must ____ . A. veto it B. disapprove it C. sign it. D. reject it E prohibit it. 9. The American President is elected every _____ years. A. four B. two C. three D. every other year E. six 10. The executive power in Britain is implemented by the ____. A. Shadow Cabinet B. Cabinet of Ministers C. Queen D. Speaker E. King 4 семестр Тест Put the correct form of the verb choosing between A, B, C, D variants. 1. They_____to return after the bomb safe. A. allowed, was made В. have been allowed, will be made С. were allowed, had been made D. had been allowed, has been made 2. There's the car of my husband. I must go and bathe my eyes, I don't want him to see I ________ A. had come, was crying В. comes, had been crying С. has come, have been crying D. came, cried 3. He on with the new boss, so he ___ another branch. A. doesn't get, asked to transfer В. hasn't got, had asked to have been transferred to С. doesn't get, has asked to be transferred to D. isn't getting, asked to transfer to 4. At the port we saw a steamer which __ with grain. A. was being loaded В. was loaded С. loaded D. is being loaded 5. Don't go that way, the road___ since March. A. repairs В. is repairing С. has been repaired D. has been repairing 6. After we ___ all the packing it will be nice to have a snack. A. will do В. are doing С. have done D. will have done 7. He ___ on with the new boss, so he __ another branch. A doesn't get, asked to transfer В hasn't got, had asked to have been transferred С doesn't get, has asked to be transferred D isn't getting, asked to transfer 8) At the port we saw a steamer which ____ with grain. A. was being loaded В. was loaded С. loaded D. is being loaded 9. Don't go that way, the road ____ since March. A. repairs В. is repairing С. has been repaired D. has been repairing 10. What question ____ when the talks____ A. is considered, break В. was considering, broke С. had been considered, are broken D. was being considered, were broken 11. He ____ up and down the room for an hour now thinking of the story he____ A walks, writes В has been walking, was writing С is walking, has been writing D was walking, wrote 12. My cousin with us until she ____ somewhere to live. A. stays, will find В. is staying, finds С. stayed, can find D. was staying, found 13. Your guests ____ They ___ in the garden. A arrived, sat В are arriving, have sat С have arrived, are sitting D arrive, were sitting 14. What sort of research ___ now and who ___ it? A. is being done, is doing В. is doing, has done С. has done, was doing D. has been done, will be doing 15. We'll get married as soon as we ___ the problem of where we ___ to live. A. will settle, will be В. have settled, are going С. settle, come D. will have settled, was going 16. Uncle Max slipped as he _____ beside the river and ____ into the water with a loud cry. A. walked, has fallen В. was walking, fell С. is walking, falls D. has walked, is falling Тест по теме: COMPLEX OBJECT Put the correct form of the verb choosing between A, B, C, variants. 1. Nobody expected the president of the company ____ to the party. a) coming b) to come c) come 2. The doctor wanted the patient ____. a) to examine b) to be examined c) being examined 3. There are a lot of people who expect your country ____ the same as their own a) not to be b) not being c) not be 4. Did you hear the chairman _____ an announcement? a) to make b) making c) be made 5. When I was waiting in the hall? I saw a girl ____ with a file in her hand. a) to come out b) coming out c) came out 6. I saw him ____ round the corner and ____. a) turn, disappear b) to turn, to disappear c) turning, disappearing 7. She noticed the children ____ behind the tree but pretended to see nothing a) hiding b) to hide c) to be hidden 8. I want this job ____ immediately. a) to do b) to be done c) doing 9. We didn’t expect her ____ about it. a) to ask b) ask c) to be asked 10. We didn’t want his speech ____. a) to interrupt b) to be interrupted c) interrupt 11. He wanted him ____ a report. a) make b) to make c) to be made 12. Mrs. Brown allowed her guests ____ in the living room. a) to smoke b) smoking c) smoke 13. Our English teacher told us ____ shy and speak English as much as possible. a) not to feel b) not feel c) don’t feel 14. Has the secretary come yet? I want her ____ my report. a) to type b) type c) typing Материала для домашнего чтения или аудиторных обсуждений. THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT Having mentioned the effect of government tax policy on the income distribution, it's necessary to examine in greater detail the role of the government in society. In every society governments provide such services as national defenсe, police, public education, firefighting services, and the administration of justice. In addition, governments through budget make transfer payments to some members of society. Transfer payments are payments made to individuals without requiring the provision of any service in return. Examples are social security, retirement pensions, unemployment benefits, and, in some countries, food stamps. Government expenditure, whether on the provision of goods and services (defenсe, police) or on transfer payments, is chiefly financed by imposing taxes, although some (small) residual component may be financed by government borrowing. Tabl. 2 compares the role of the government in four countries. Tahl. 2. Government Spending as a Percentage of National Income
In each case, we look at four measures of government spending as a percentage of national income: spending on the direct provision of goods and services for the public, transfer payments, interest on the national debt, and total spending. Italy is a "big-government" country. Its government spending is large and it needs to raise correspondingly large tax revenues. In contrast, Japan has a much smaller government sector and needs to raise correspondingly less tax revenue. These differences in the scale of government activity relative to national income reflect differences in the way different countries allocate their resources arnong competing uses. Governments spend part of their revenue on particular goods and services such as tanks, schools and public safety. They directly affect what is produced. Japan's low share of government spending on goods and services in Tabl. 2 reflects the very low level of Japanese spending on defence. Governments affect for whom output is produced through their tax and transfer payments. By taxing the rich and making transfers to the poor, the government ensures that the poor are allocated more of what is produced than would otherwise be the case; and the rich get correspondingly less. The government also affect how goods are produced, for example through the regulations it imposes. Managers of factories and mines must obey safety requirements even where these are costly to implement, firms are prevented from freely polluting the atmosphere and rivers, offices and factories are banned in attractive residential parts of the city. The scale of government activities in the modem economy is highly controversial. In the UK the government takes nearly 40 per cent of national income in taxes. Some governments take a larger share, others a smaller share. Different shares will certainly affect the questions what, how and for whom, but some people believe that a large government sector makes the economy inefficient, reducing the number of goods that can be produced and eventually allocated to consumers. It's commonly asserted that high tax rates reduce the incentive to work. If half of all we earn goes to the government, we might prefer to work fewer hours a week and spend more time in the garden or watching TV. That is one possibility, but there is another one: if workers have in mind a target after-tax income, e.g. to have at least sufficient to afford a foreign holiday every year, they will have to work more hours to meet this target when taxes are higher. Whether on balance high taxes make people work more or less remains an open question. Welfare payments and unemployment benefit are more likely to reduce incentives to work since they actually contribute to target income. If large-scale government activity leads to important disincentive effects, government activity will affect not only what, how, and for whom goods are produced, but also how much is produced by the economy as a whole. This discussion of the role of the government is central to the process by which society allocates its scarce resources. It also raises a question. Is it inevitable that the government plays a prominent part in the process by which society decides how to allocate resources between competing demands? This question lies at the heart of economics. Tasks to the text. 1. Make a list of unknown words. Translate them. 2. Translate the text. 3. Answer the questions: a) In what way can governments affect what and for who is produced? b) Why does a large government sector make the economy inefficient? c) What are the two possibilities of responding to high tax rates on the part of workers? d) What is the possible outcome of large-scale government activity? 4. Summarize in your own words the arguments for and against high taxes. FREE MARKET ECONOMY (read and translate with the dictionary) Free Market Economy, economic situation that exists when, with the exception of certain activities that are generally regarded as the responsibility of the state (such as defence, or what passes for law and order in modern society), all economic activities and transactions are left up to the free choice of individuals. A free market economy is thus one, which provides an environment in which individuals are free to pursue their own economic welfare in whatever way they think best, and free of government regulation and restriction. In such an environment, individuals will be free to make decisions concerning their employment, the use of their capital, and the way that they dispose of their resources for example, as between savings and consumption, and as between alternative patterns of expenditure. But there are various areas of contention concerning the definition and the consequences of a free market economy. First, there is obviously scope for differences of opinion as to what activities ought to be the responsibility of the state rather than left to the free choice of individuals. For example, most people would argue that since the right to life and liberty and protection from attack by one's fellow citizens is a basic right it is not tradeable, and one's protection by the forces of law and order should not depend on one's ability to pay for it. In addition, up to a point some of the services of law and order constitute a "pure public good" in the sense that if a policeman patrols my street in order to deter potential burglars from entering my neighbour's house, he will also deter the burglars from entering mine, at no extra cost. Nevertheless, many security services are provided by private enterprise, and private individuals often spend money to improve their own security. The armed guard standing outside a bank and paid by the bank to deter robbers might not help an old lady being mugged in front of him. Hence, no sharp dividing line can be drawn between those activities that are, or should be, provided by the state and those that are, or should be, left to the free market. Similarly, in many countries it is accepted that basic human rights for example, to life, and hence to minimum health care require the state to supplement private health services. Similar considerations apply to education and to the provision of various other activities. In many countries that would be regarded as basically free market economies, the state is largely responsible for other activities, such as rail transport, the postal services, public utilities, and so on. Even in countries where these activities are in the private sector it is usually accepted that government regulation is desirable to prevent such "natural monopolies" from making excessive profits. Secondly, even the economic activities that are carried out by the private sector are usually constrained by government regulations of one kind or another. Many of these correspond to fundamental political and philosophical views on the need to restrict freedom of individuals to do what they would like when to do so might restrain the freedom of other individuals. This view is sometimes expressed in the proposition that my freedom to swing my fist stops at the end of your nose. Thus, for example, economic freedom is usually constrained by various laws preventing the infringement of other peoples' property rights, or enforcing laws of contract, and so on. In other words, it is usually accepted that the environment in which the free market economy operates is one that is regulated by such laws. Government regulation, however, usually goes far beyond this, as there may be some tradeoffs' between freedom and some other basic human rights. For example, regulations restrict the freedom of firms to employ child labour or slave labour (in defence of certain basic human rights), or to emit poisonous substances into the atmosphere or rivers, or to sell dangerous products (in violation of the assumption that the consumer always knows what is best for himself or herself). Thus, differing views as to the extent to which the state should itself carry out certain activities (defence, law and order, health and education services, public utilities, and so on), and the extent to which the state should regulate those activities carried out by the private sector, mean that there is no unique objective definition of what exactly is, or should be, a "free market economy". But there is also scope for much disagreement as to the beneficial effects of a free market economy. In traditional Western political philosophy, it is usually believed that the good society is one in which individuals accept responsibility for their decisions, and that this means that they should have the greatest possible freedom to make their economic choices. Furthermore, it is believed by many that economic freedom is essential in order to preserve political freedom. There is also a long tradition to the effect that free markets are also more "efficient" in economic terms. Free markets provide incentives to people to allocate their resources (including their labour and capital) amongst the most productive uses, and an incentive to producers to produce goods and services that respond to what the public wants and to use the techniques of production that are most efficient. The experience of the past few decades, notably the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the difficult state of its former members, has amply demonstrated the harmful economic effects of excessive state intervention. At the same time, many people would object that the particular income distribution that will emerge from the operation of a free market may not conform either to certain notions of "justice", or even satisfy basic humanitarian concerns to alleviate acute poverty and destitution. It is also possible that it may permit the accumulation of vast wealth and powerful vested interests that may threaten the survival of political freedom. Hence, the existence of a free market economy does not necessarily mean that the pursuit of other basic social values or the preservation of political freedom can be neglected. In reality what can happen when the state allows or wishes a free market is that a small group can hold the wealth of a nation, whilst the majority live below the accepted wage level. To install a free market economy perhaps is the dream of just a few, however to compare with nations that have had many years of running a free market is perhaps a rather high mountain to climb. The notion of a free market must be fully understood, as without this basic understanding of what the state must regulate and why, a free for all situation would ensue! Perhaps put more plainly, people would do whatever they wished with the services, which they controlled. MARKETS The Role of Market (Роль рынка) Reports in the press tend to say "the market did this" or "the market expected gopd news on the economic front", as if the market were a single living entity with a single conscious mind. This is not, of course, the case. To understand reports of market behaviour you have to bear in mind the way the market-works. A market is simply a mechanism, which allows individuals or organizations to trade with each other. Markets bring together buyers, and sellers of goods and services. In some cases, such as a local fruit stall, buyers and sellers meet physically. In other cases, such as the stock market, business can be transacted over the telephone, almost by remote control. There's no need to go into these details. Instead, we use a general definition of markets. A market is a shorthand expression for the process by which households' decisions about consumption of alternative goods, firms' decisions about what and how to produce, and workers' decisions about how much and for whom to work are all reconciled by adjustment of prices. Prices of goods and of resources, such as labour, machinery and land, adjust to ensure that scarce resources are used, to produce those goods and services that society demands. Much of economics is devoted to the study of how markets and prices enable society to solve the problems of what, how and for whom to produce. Suppose you buy a hamburger for your lunch. What does this have to do with markets and prices? You chose the cafe because it was fast, convenient and cheap. Given your desire to eat, and your limited resources, the low hamburger price told you that this was a good way to satisfy your appetite. You probably prefer steak but that is more expensive. The price of steak is high enough to ensure that society answers the "for whom" question about lurch time steaks in favour of someone else. Now think about the seller's viewpoint. The cafe owner is in business because, given the price of hamburger meat, the rent and the wages that must be paid, it is still possible to sell hamburgers at a profit. If rents were higher, it might be more profitable to sell hamburgers in'a cheaper area or to switch to luxury lunches for rich executives on expense accounts. The student behind the counter is working there because it is a suitable part-time job, which pays a bit of money. If the wage were much lower it would hardly be worth working at all. Conversely, the job is unskilled and there are plenty of students looking for such work, so owners of cafes do not have to offer very high wages. Prices are guiding your decision to buy a hamburger, the owner's decision to sell hamburgers, and the student's decision to take the job. Society is allocating resources - meat, buildings, and labour - into hamburger production through the price system. If nobody liked hamburgers, the owner could not sell enough at a price that covered the cost of running the cafe and society would devote no resources to hamburger production. People's desire to eat hamburgers guides resources into hamburger production. However, if cattle contracted a disease, thereby reducing the economy's ability to produce meat products, competition to purchase more scarce supplies of beef would .bid up the price of beef, hamburger producers would be forced to raise prices, and consumers would buy more cheese sandwiches for lunch. Adjustments in prices would encourage society to reallocate resources to reflect the increased scarcity of cattle. There were several markets involved in your purchase of a hamburger. You and the cafe owner were part of the market for lunches. The student behind the counter was part of the local labour market. The cafe owner was part of the local wholesale meat market and the local market for rented buildings. These descriptions of markets are not very precise. Were you part of the market for lunches, the market for prepared food or the market for sandwiches to which you would have turned if hamburgers had been more expensive? That is why we have adopted a very general definition of markets, which emphasizes that they are arrangements through, which prices influence the allocation of scarce resources. I. Questions to the text. 1. What example is given of a market where sellers and buyers actually meet? 2. How arc households' decisions on what to buy reconciled? 3. Why do prices adjust? 4. What problems do markets and prices solve for society? 5. Why is the cafe owner in business? 6. Why don't cafe owners have to pay high wages? 7. What makes society put resources into hamburger production? 8. What would consumers do if hamburger prices rose? 9. How many markets are you involved in if you buy a hamburger? What are those markets? 10. Enumerate all the components comprising the concept of "Market". 11. What does the term "resources" comprise? 12. In what way can prices guide your decision to buy some goods? 13. In what way can prices guide a person's decision to take a job? II. Find in the text English equivalents for the following поведение рынка; рынок ценных бумаг; проводить сделку, операцию; иметь что-то общее с чем-либо; с учетом чего-либо (принимая во внимание); в пользу кого-либо другого; прибыльно продавать; переключиться на что-либо; неквалифицированная работа; распределять ресурсы посредством системы цен; сокращать возможности экономики; набавлять цену; перераспределять расходы; оптовый рынок; механизмы (структуры), посредством которых цены влияют на распределение. III. Explain in English rent; profit; expense account; part-time job; labour market; wholesale (meat) market MONEY AND ITS FUNCTIONS All values in the economic system are measured in terms of money. Our goods and services are sold for money, and that money is in turn exchanged for other goods and services. Coins are adequate for small transactions, while paper notes are used for general business. There is additionally a wider sense of the word «money», covering anything which is used as a means of exchange, whatever form it may take!- Originally, a valuable metal (gold, silver or copper) served as a constant store of value, and even today the American dollar is technically «backed» by the store of gold which the US government maintains. Because gold has been universally regarded as a very valuable metal, national currencies were for many years judged in terms of the so-called «gold standard». Nowadays however valuable metal has generally been replaced by paper notes. National currencies are considered to be as strong as the national economies which support them. Paper notes are issued by governments and authorized banks, and are known as «legal tender».mother arrangements such as cheques and money orders are not legal tender. They perform the function of substitute money and are known as «instruments of credit». Credit is offered only when creditors believe that they have a good chance of obtaining legal tender when they present such instruments at a bank or other authorized institution. If a man's assets are known to be considerable, then his credit will be good. If his assets are in doubt, then it may be difficult for him to obtain large sums of credit or even to pay for goods with a cheque. The value of money is basically its value as a medium of exchange, or, as economists put it, its «purchasing power». This purchasing power is dependent on supply and demand. The demand for money is reckonable as the quantity needed to effect business transactions. An increase in business requires an increase in the amount of money coming into general circulation. But the demand for money is related not only to the quantity of business but also to the rapidity with which the business is done. The supply of money, on the other hand, is the actual amount in notes and coins available for business purposes. If too much money is available, its value decreases, and it does not buy as much as it did, say, five years earlier. This condition is known as «inflation». Questions to the text. 1. What is the role of money and what are its functions? 2. What is the gold standard and why was it abandoned? What backs national currencies now? 3. Why do you think valuable metal has been replaced by paper money? Who can issue paper notes? 4. What are money orders and what function do they perform? 5. In what case can one obtain large sums of credit and even pay for goods with a cheque? 6. What is purchasing power and what does it depend on? 7. How do we reckon the demand for money? What is the demand for money related to? 8. What is inflation? Exercises 1. a) Give the wider sense of the word «money». b) Pick out derivatives and word combinations with the word «value». Translate them into Rusian and use them in sentences of your own. c) Find in the text all the terms which you would use speaking about money. d) Find in the text the terms which are used to describe the operations of the bank. e) Pick out from the text set expressions with the word «interest». Translate them into Russian and use them in sentences of your own. f) Give the word combinations with the word «account» used in the text and explain their ■ leanings. What other meanings of this word do you know? g) Give synonyms of the word «loan». Use them in sentences of your own. h) Pick out the terms which are used in the text for describing the usual procedure of the bank when granting a loan. i) Explain the difference between «to create money» and «to make money». Illustrate that with your examples. 2. a) Make up English-Russian pairs choosing the suitable equivalents. I. legal tender; 2. bearer; 3. draft; 4. pledge; 5. reservoir; 6. debit and credit; 7. reckon; 8. gold standard; 9. store of value; 10. money order. [переводной вексель; 2. резервуар; 3. расход и приход; 4. подсчитывать, исчислять; 5. золотой стандарт; 6. предъявитель; 7. средство сбережения; 8. законное платежное средство; 9. платежное поручение; 10. закладывать, сдавать в залог. b) Make up Russian-English pairs. 1. активы; 2. распределять, размещать (средства); 3. хранение ценностей; 4. опекун; 5. посредник; 6. движение денег; 7. выпускать деньги; 8. обусловленная сумма; 9. ценность; 10. ликвидность. 1. safe-keeping; 2. intermediary; 3. the flow of money; 4. to issue money; 5. a stipulated amount; 6. to allocate; 7. value; 8. liquidity; 9. assets; 10. guardian. 3.Give English equivalents of the following: 1. средство обмена; 2. сделка, операция; 3. отказаться от золотого стандарта; 4. средство расчета; 5. обращение денег; 6. денежная масса; 7. выпускать деньги; 8. текущий счет: 9. срочный счет; 10. дать заем под 12 процентов; 11. вкладчик; 12. сбережения; 13. залог; 14. ссужаемые деньги; 15. получать доход. MARKET FORCES Market Forces, underlying influences on the operation of the economy. They boil down to supply and demand, which determine price and the allocation of resources. In a pure free market economy, market forces are unrestrained. However, in all countries, governments to a greater or lesser degree restrict the operation of the free market and therefore distort (even negate) the effect of market forces through economic policy. In the former communist countries the system of central planning left no room for market forces to operate. In other parts of the world governments have often, for different reasons, sought to override market forces through such actions as the granting of subsidies to firms or services that (it is judged) could not survive in a free market, or the imposition of tariffs or quotas on imports. Increasingly, however, countries are moving towards a position where market forces are allowed to operate more and more freely. A market revolution is taking place in the former communist nations, but changes have also taken place all over the world from South America to Southern Africa. An open market in which market forces are allowed to operate freely is at the heart of the single market programme of the European Union. However, the principle has never been applied to farming in the EL), which is governed by the Common Agricultural Policy under which prices for agricultural produce are guaranteed, thus encouraging overproduction. This is a major concern for British Prime Minister Tony Blair who has tried to change this policy, however the French are strongly opposed to any cut in it's common agricultural policy budget. Market forces vary from market to market and derive their power from the individuals who make up a market and on whose lives they have enormous influence. They are determined by such factors as wealth, consumer taste, regulation, and taxation. Stringent safety requirements may push up the cost (and therefore the price) of a potentially desirable product beyond that which a sufficient number of consumers can afford (or are willing) to pay. Tax differentials on alcoholic drinks and tobacco have encouraged thousands of Britons to make day trips to France in order to stock up with beer, wine, and tobacco products. Tasks to the text 1. Name some market forces mentioned in the text. 2. Which of them do you think have the greatest influence on the economy of your country (city, town, etc.) |
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