Пособие по переводу международных документов для студентов III курса факультета мо москва, 2006
Скачать 1.51 Mb.
|
Can a Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty Be Effectively Verified? John Carlson Capping the production of highly enriched uranium (HEU) and plutonium for nuclear weapons has long been a goal of the international nuclear nonproliferation agenda because it has been seen as putting a real-world limit on the potential for any nuclear weapons buildup. During the last decade, this goal has, at times, appeared close to being realized. Negotiation of a verifiable fissile material cutoff treaty (FMCT) was one of the central principles and objectives that helped achieve the indefinite extension of the nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) at the 1995 Review and Extension Conference, and it was again endorsed by states-parties at the 2000 NPT Review Conference. The five nuclear-weapon states have also contributed to this effort as they are all understood to have ceased fissile material production for weapons purposes. Yet, for the last few years, negotiation of such a treaty has been blocked by the failure of the Conference on Disarmament (CD) to agree on its broader work program. Recently, China, the United States, and other countries have advanced proposals that could provide momentum to move the process of negotiating an FMCT forward. Before diplomats reach that stage, however, a new potential obstacle looms: ensuring that the negotiating mandate still has consensus. Currently, the negotiating mandate for the CD, drawn from a 1993 UN General Assembly resolution,[1] outlines the following elements: an FMCT is to ban “the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons and other nuclear explosive devices” and the treaty is to be “nondiscriminatory, multilateral and internationally and effectively verifiable.” The United States had supported this mandate for the last decade, but in July, officials in the Bush administration concluded that effective international verification of an FMCT was not realistically achievable. The administration still supports the early conclusion of an FMCT to establish cutoff as an international norm but is concerned that perceived technical verification difficulties will seriously delay conclusion of the treaty. In their view, for example, potential sticking points include how to distinguish new production from pre-existing material and how to verify that production said to be for naval fuel is really being used for that purpose. There is no reason, however, that these difficulties should lead to a deadlock. There is a way to address the United States’ desire to conclude a treaty quickly as well as to meet the broad desire to have a treaty with effective verification: separating the questions of political objectives and commitments and verification measures into two separate negotiations. In fact, there is already a model for this in the NPT. September 16, 2005 The UN and Terrorism: Defining the Indefinable? Its Sept. 14 passing of resolution 1624 (2005) calling on states to prohibit incitement to commit something it failed to comprehensively define indicates that the United Nations may have achieved new levels of absurdity even for an organization often reduced to surrealism by political differences among its member states. Underlying this latest imbroglio is the unpalatable fact that terrorism, like beauty, resides in the eye of the beholder. This is not a new problem: the truism that "one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter" is as old as it is trite. Nor is it one that is likely to go away any time soon. On the face of it, the current impasse on defining terrorism appears to have arisen partly out of some (mainly Muslim) countries' sympathies with armed campaigns like that being waged by Palestinian groups against Israel. Such campaigns, say some, represent legitimate resistance and should not be classed at terrorism. Meanwhile, countries like the United States and the United Kingdom have been calling for a definition encompassing an earlier draft's insistence that "deliberate and unlawful targeting and killing cannot be justified or legitimized by any cause or grievance." Therein lies the rub. Partly. However Muslim countries have not been the only ones to express concern at the proposed wording of any UN-wide definition of terrorism. For instance, last month, John Bolton, the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, argued in a letter to other envoys that any definition of what constitutes a terrorist act should exclude "military activities that are appropriately governed by international humanitarian law." In other words, limits should be placed on the degree to which government actions – such as say, bombing civilians – should be considered terrorism. As such concerns illustrate, many of the differences over any generally acceptable definition of terrorism are related to the identity of both those describing others as terrorists and those being thus described. Other, interrelated issues include the extent to which terrorism is considered a means towards an end as well as the nature of that end. Most of those termed terrorists reject being described thus, justifying their methods by insisting these are forced on them by a lack of resources. This insistence ignores the advantages of terrorism, which is notably difficult to counter, and underlines one of the fundamental truths about it – namely that it is primarily a tactic. An emphasis on means makes terrorism appear less legitimate as its accompanying sub-categories (such as bombing, assassination, or hijacking) tend to be more derogatorily emotive than those that address ends (such as insurgency, revolution, or uprising). This may partly have motivated another suggestion put forward in Bolton's letter – namely that that the focus be on the formulation of "a nonexclusive list of actions that would amount to terrorist acts" (and punishable under international law) rather than seeking to define terrorism. The pros and cons of such a list (and its non-exclusivity) apart, Bolton's stress on such methods over the nitty-gritty of trying to arrive at a generally-acceptable definition of terrorism does suggest a degree of impatience that could be detrimental to combating it. This charge could also be leveled as other aspects of the Bush administration's ongoing counter-terrorism campaign. Semantically, that administration's declaration of a war on terrorism (or 'terror' as it is now increasingly termed) both highlighted and targeted the enemy's preferred means. However, this much-discussed and much-derided declaration -albeit one that Washington is finally if belatedly attempting to distance itself from – also further muddied the definitional waters, suggesting an understanding of terrorism that could prove lacking for the task at hand. Much the same could be said for U.S. thinking on the ends towards which terrorism is employed. Generally speaking, terrorism is widely viewed as violence towards a political end. This perspective is not universally accepted. Some scholars associate it with the deliberate evocation of terror. Others argue that motivations are irrelevant. Meanwhile, the ruling that the suspect in the 'sniper' murders that occurred in the Washington, D.C., area in 2002 could be charged under Virginia's post-Sept. 11, 2001 anti-terrorism law showed that the perception of terrorism as being politically motivated is not always shared by U.S. officials. Such readings risk so broadening the term terrorism as to make it useless. Not only do they fail to differentiate between the political activist who uses violence to achieve their ends, and the common criminal, but they also overemphasize the psychological intent of those who employ what is basically a method. It is helpful to its practitioners if terrorism terrorizes but, while this often confers strategic and tactical advantages, it is not their primary aim. Likewise – despite claims to the contrary made by some U.S. officials in the past — terrorism such as the United States is currently facing is neither nihilistic nor simply directed against such nebulous targets as democracy or the American way of life. Whether arising out of attempts to mobilize public opinion or just plain ignorance, such rhetoric suggests confusion as to nature of the terrorism threatening America and is dangerously unhelpful in terms of countering it. In this regard, the current UN debate over what is and what is not terrorism is one that should be encouraged and expanded. The United Nations is a frustrating venue for such an exercise. Moreover, to paraphrase the British academic. Sir Michael Howard, its General Assembly – to which the task of agreeing upon a definition of terrorism falls – is a parlement rather than a parliament. The United Nations' often Machiavellian internal political dynamics notwithstanding it will also only ever be as effective as its member states allow it to be. That will mean reconciling the priorities of its poorer members, who, for instance, tend to view the war on poverty as more important than the war on terrorism), with those of its richer ones, for whom al-Qaida and their fellow travelers currently represent public enemy number one. hi attempting to define terrorism, the United Nations may indeed be attempting to define the indefinable. But it is in the hammering out of such a definition that a real understanding of terrorism will be partly forged. Such understanding is necessary if the scourge of terrorism is to be managed as optimally as it must. In that sense, defining terrorism is much more important that having a definition of it. 1 Группа высокого уровня по угрозам, вызовам и переменам («Группа мудрецов»). |
Похожие:
 | О. Р. Жерновая пособие по переводу и реферированию общественно-политических текстов Рекомендовано методической комиссией факультета международных отношений для студентов высших учебных заведений, обучающихся по специальностям... | | Учебное пособие по общественно-политическому переводу для студентов 4-5 курсов факультета мо Цель заданий – содействовать усвоению языка и стиля изложения дипломатических документов как на немецком, так и на русском языках,... |
| Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов дневной формы обучения... Пособие рекомендовано для обеспечения базового курса дневного обучения в техническом вузе |  | Методические указания для студентов по дисциплине «патологическая анатомия» Методические указания предназначены для студентов III курса сгму лечебного факультета, международного факультета врача общей практики,... |
| Международные организации Учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для развития компетенции студентов в области международных организаций, развития навыков... | | Учебно-методическое пособие для студентов 5 курса юридического факультета... Судебная психиатрия: Учебно-методическое пособие для студентов 5-го курса отделения юридического факультета очной формы обучения... |
| Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов 5 курса педиатрического... Пособие предназначено для преподавателей при прохождении производственной практики студентами 5 курса педиатрического факультета... | | Планы семинарских занятий по курсу микроэкономика, часть 1 Для студентов 1 курса факультета Данное методическое пособие составлено в помощь студентам 1-го курса факультета экономики и управления ргу нефти и газа им. И. М.... |
| Лекции Дисциплина «Лексикология» предназначена для студентов III курса факультета романо-германской филологии (VI семестр). Цель курса –... | | Программа курса «Управление организационными изменениями» Москва... Настоящую программу разработал профессор Института международных экономических связей, доктор экономических наук |
| Дидактическое пособие по английскому языку «Презентация проекта» для студентов III курса «Введение в специальность» для студентов 2 курса и является, таким образом, второй, заключительной, частью дидактического обеспечения... | | Планы семинарских занятий по курсу экономическая теория микроэкономика,... Данное методическое пособие составлено в помощь студентам1-го курса факультета экономики и управления ргу нефти и газа им. И. М.... |
| Учебно-методическое пособие для студентов факультета журналистики Москва 2006 Журналистам, желающим избрать для себя именно эту тематику, необходимы специальные знания. Они должны хорошо владеть политологическим... | | Методическое пособие по практике устной и письменной речи английского... Методическое пособие обсуждено и утверждено на заседании кафедры английской филологии факультета филологии и журналистики Ростовского... |
| Как форма самостоятельной Методическое пособие предназначено для студентов экономического факультета всех форм обучения и разработано в помощь студенту в процессе... | | С курсом физиотерапии сборник тестовых заданий по пропедевтике внутренних... Пропедевтика внутренних болезней. Учебно-методическое пособие для студентов педиатрического факультета/ Ослопов В. Н., Богоявленская... |
