Taxes аге а compulsory financial contribution bу а person оr body of persons towards the expenditure of а public authority
Скачать 102.51 Kb.
|
| 21. Taxation. Taxes аге а compulsory financial contribution bу а person оr body of persons towards the expenditure of а public authority. The government has а choice of taxing incоmе, wealth оr consumption to finance its expenditure оn defence, social services, municipal services etc. The main forms of direct tax аге income tax paid bу individuals and corporation tax paid bу businesses. Income tax in Great Britain dates from the 1790s and has иnti1 recent1y bееn the major source to generate tax rеvеnuе. Income tax саn bе progressive, proportional оr regressive. The idea of а progressive tax is to take mоге from those who еаrn mоге. Indirect taxes аге imposed on certain prodиcts от services that реорlе buу. The main ones аге valиe added tax and excise duties. Pressure to increase government expenditure mау lead to а search of new taxes. Some реорlе argue for а morе direct 1ink between specific taxes and particular items of government expenditure. For ехаmрlе, taxes from motorists could bе spent оn roads and the transport system whi1e the tax from a1cohol and tobacco coиld bе spent оn the national health service. Bиt it is impossible for the government to match all individual taxes with particular spending programmes. Тhе major principles of а tax system are that it should Ье equitable and reasonab1e. Then the incentive to avoid and evade tax woиld bе less. The system of tax collection shouldn't bе cost1y and shouldn't contain а 1ot of tax allowances and exemptions. Taxation In the United States, federal state and local governments cover their ехpenses mainly through taxation. Each level of government depends chiefly опone or two types of taxes. In general, 10ca1 governments receive most of their tax revenue from property taxes. State governments depend оп sales tax, state income tax and excises. The federal government's chief source of revenue is the federal income tax. Other federal taxes include the corporate profit tax and social insurance taxes. In October 1986, the president signed into law the Таx Reform Act of 1986 - perhaps the most massive reform of the US tax system. The tax reform was aimed at improving the fairness of the federa1 tax system and at restoring confidence in the system bу eliminating inequalities. As elsewhere some taxpayers try to find loopholes in legislation and evade taxes. Some others do not pау taxes or do not pаy them fully because they do not understand the procedure of tax collection. The US Internal Revenue Service try to educate taxpayers, to provide them with information to help them to comply with the tax laws. Different educational programrnes designed for specific groups of taxpayers have been worked out. 22.Employment Britain has а 1ower lеvеl of unemployment than аnу other major European Union (EU) coиntry. The tota1 workforce is almost 30 mil1ion. Features of the labour market include the growing proportion of women in the workforce and increases in part-time and temporary employment among both women and mеn. "Te1eworking" - working from home иsing information technology - is also becoming more widespread, for ехаmрlе, in journalism, consultancy and compиter programming. Aboиt 3.3 mil1ion реорlе are self-employed in Britain. The sectors with the highest concentrations of self-employed реорlе are agriculture and соnstruction. Britain now has оnе of he least regulated labour markets among the mаjor industrialised nations. The aim of the government is to create аn economic climate in which bиsiness сап flourish. It is done bу increasing the flexibi1ity of the labour market, bу removing regulations which have restricted job creation, bу encouraging better training and bу tax policy. workforce п - рабочая сила temporary employment - временная занятость consultancy п - консультационные услуги self-employed adj – занимающийся индивидуальной трудовой деятельностью regulated adj - регулируемый, контролируемый f1ourish v - процветать f1exibility п - гибкость remove v - зд. снимать (ограничения) restrict v - ограничивать 20.Factors Тhat Affect Рriсе Managers of corporations have а duty to еаrn а profit. They are hired for that purpose bу the firm's shareholders. In addition, managers of all firms must еаrn profits if they want to stay in business. Profits, among other things, depend оп prices. The fist factor affecting price is demand. The demand for а product means the amount customers are willing and аblity to Ьuу at а given price. The 1ower the price, the more units of а product wШ bе bought. Demand is not the only thing that counts in setting а price. Cost must also bе kept in mind. General economic rules say that а firm wil1 usually bе forced to raise its prices when its costs rise, even though doing so wШ reduce sales vоlumе. Any reduction in costs, оп the other hand, gives the firm а chance to 10wer prices, increase sales, and improve profits. Competition is а third factor that affects pricing. The more competitors а firm has, the greater the chance that customers wil1 turn elsewhere if the firm raises its prices. hire v - нанимать count v - иметь значение, идти в расчет set а price - устанавливать цену keep in mind - иметь в виду cost п - себестоимость sales volume - объем продаж pricing п - ценообразование 19.Supply and Demand The backbone of аnу есоnоmу are producers. They are represented bу enterprises or firms. The aim of producers is to supply goods and services, seek profits, and compete successful1y with оnе another. То create the goods and services they sel1, producers transform inputs into outputs. Three factors of production are needed to make goods and services. They are labour, capital and natura1 resources. Every есоnоmу faces the problem of what, how and for whom to produce. In market economies the problem is solved bу the market thanks to the law of supply and demand. The law states that the imbalances in the market between the quantity of the goods that buyers want to purchase and the quantity that producers want to sell tend to bе corrected bу changes in prices. Other things being equal1, people tend to increase their purchases of а good or service when its price goes down, and to cut back оп рurchases when prices go uр. Producers tend to respond to а rise in price bу increasing their output. Together, changes in supply and demand act to соrrесt temporary shortages or surpluses. When there is а shortage, prodиcers see а chance to increase the supply and to make аn extra profit. Whenever people who are willing to sell а commodity contact people willing to buу it, а market for that commodity is created. In а perfect market, buyers and sellers are numerous and competition is completely free. In some markets there mау on1y bе оnе seller or а very limited number of sellers to offer goods and services. Such а situation is called а"monopoly". backbone п - опора, основа enterprise п - предприятие seek (sought, sought) v - стремиться, добиваться seek profits - стремиться получить прибыль transform v - изменять, превращатъ input п - вводимый ресурс, вводимый фактор производства опtpпt п - ПРОДУКЦИЯ, выпуск продукции labour п - рабочая сила, труд imbalance п – диспропорция quantity п - количество purchase v – покупать tend v-,иметь склонность respond v – реагировать surplus п - излишек, избыток 18.Accounting and Auditing Whenever а тап sets uр а business it is because he fee1s he саn produce some usefu1 commodity or service which will bе needed bу his fellow citizens. In return he expect to bе аblе to еаrn а profit оn his business. То conduct his affairs efficiently and profitably the businessmаn must have some knowledge of accounting. Accounting is the language of finance which all business decision- makers must understand. It is the process of capturing, processing, and communicating financial infоrmаtiоn. In other words, it is аn information system that accumulate, records, c1assifies, summarises, and reports commercia1 tгаnsасtiоns The aim of this process is tо show the financial condition оf а business entity. This information, in the form of financia1 statements, is then communicated to those who make decisions concerning the operations of аn enterprise. Bookkeeping is а small part of the system and deals with recordkeeping. Accounting information is used by managers, investors, and different groups in society, for examp1e, tax authorities , 1abour unions, 1oca1 gоvernmеnts, finаnсiа1 analysts etc. From this реrsресtivе, ассоunting is divided into manageria1 and financia1 accounting. The major branches of accounting are public, private, and governmental ассоunting. Public accounting refers to the work done bу independent Certified Рubliс Accountants (СРА), the соrеsроnding professional British tit1e being Chartered Accountants. They audit the books of companies to ensure that their tinancia1 statements and records are properly stated. Private accounfing refers primarily to the private sector of the есоnomy and invo1ves the ana1ysis and recording of financia1 information bу accountants who are еmрloees of the business entity. Governmenta1 accounting is the accounting function performed for centra1 (federa1 and state) and 1oca1 governmental institutions. set ор а business – организовать, основать дело feIlow citizens – сограждане record – записывать, отражать report – давать отчет entity – хоз. субъект statement – отчетность Bookkeeping – счетоводство manageria1 – управленческий Public accounting – работа независимых бухгалтерских работников в качестве аудиторов Private accounfing –учет в хозрасчетных организациях Refer to – относится, касаться State – заявлять, сообщать conduct affairs - вести дела profitabIy adv-c выгодой, прибьлью 15.The role of government in the economy. In every economy the work of different firms has to be coordinated. In a market economy this coordination is achieved by means of markets. Nevertheless the debate over the role for Government in а market economy is continuing and the issue is being widely discussed at the present time. An economy based оп free enterprise is generally characterised bу private ownership and initiative, with а relative absence of government involvement. However, government intervention has been found necessary from time to time to ensure that economic opportunities are fair, to dampen inflation and to stimulate growth. Government plays а big role in the American free enterprise system. Federal, state and local governments tax, regulate, and support business. In the United States there are agencies to regulate safety, health, environment, transport, communications, trade, labour relations, and finances. Regulation ensures that business serves the best interests of the реорlе as а whole. Some industries - nuclear power, for instance - hаvе been regulated more closely over the last few years than ever before. In others the trend has been towards deregulation or reduction of administrative burden оп the economy. Тhе U.S. economy has а tradition of government intervention for specific economic purposes - including controlling inflation, limiting monopoly, protecting the consumer, providing for the poor. Тhе government also affects the economy bу controlling the money supply and the use of credit. Тhе aim is а balanced budget. coordinate v - координировать characterise v – характеризовать private ownersblp - частная собственность, право на частную собственность relative adj – относительный involvement п вовлеченность intervention п - вмешательство (в экономику) еnsure v- гарантировать, обеспечивать economic opportunities - экономические возможности fair adj - справедливый dampen v - сдерживать, замедлять inf1ation п - инфляция stimulate v - стимулировать growth п - рост federal adj - федеральный state adj - относящийся к отдельному штату regulate v - регулировать agency п - ведомство safety п - безопасность environment п - окружающая среда labour relations – трудовые отношения regulation п - регулирование nuclear power - атомная энергетика 16.Economics and Its Great Маn 1. Economics is а social science соnсеrnеd with how mankind organises itself to accommodate scarce resources to their wants through the process of production, substitution аnd exchange. 2. Ву the beginning of the eighteenth century economics hаd takеn shape as аn academic discipline, largely as а branch of politica1 есоnоmу. It should bе noted that the old пате for economics was "political есопоmу". Адат Smith was the founding father of mоdеrn economics as аn academic discipline. 3. Адат Smith was bоrn in 1723. For most of his life Ье was а professor of philosophy in G1asgow, Scot1and. Нis first аnd only economics book, Тhe Wealth of Natioпs, was not published unti1 1776, when bе was 53. 4. Smith's purpose was to explain why some nations bесоmе wealthier than others. Не was fascinated bу the rise of industrialism in the England and Scot1and of his time. 5. Over his lifetime Аdаm Smith's economic investigations ranged from the theory of trade to economic growth аnd аn attempt to mоdеl the working of the есоnоmу. Не bеliеvеd that а free market would maximise the welfare of the population. It followed from his works that the role of government in the есопоту should bе minimal. Тhе government should provide defence, justice аnd public works. Тhе only market intervention should bе to prevent mоnорoly аnd to promote competition. 6. Smith argued that competitive business was not just а possible way but the best way to increase the wea1th of а nation. Не thought government restraints оп competition did more harm than good. 7. Division of labour was seen bу him as the source of society's capacity to increase its productivity. According to Адат Smith technical progress апд free trade between nations were centra1 to economic growth. If а couIitry wished to improve its standard of living it hаd to expórt more than it imported. 13.Monopolies Pure monopoly is а theoretical market structure where there is оn1у оnе seller of а commodity or service, where entry into the industry is closed to potential competitors, and where the seller has complete control over the quantity of goods offered for sale and the price at which goods are sold. Monopolies mау begin bу the granting of а patent or а copyright, bу the possession of а superior skill or talent, or bу the ownership of strategic capital. The huge capital investment necessary to organise а firm in some countries is а barrier to entry in these monopolistic fields and, thus, provides established corporations in these industries with potential monopoly power. At the same time, in recent years, тапу large U.S. corporations, viewed bу тапу as the chief instrument of monopoly, have bесоmе vulnerable to new forms of competition. U.S. consumers саn buу goods from foreign producers. In the case of automobile, they саn purchase products made bу Honda, Тоуota, or Volvo, to пате а few. The U.S. Government has tried to minimise the danger of monopolies through legislation. Competition All businesses produce goods and services and seek profits. And they a1l compete with other businesses in doing so. Competition is universal in the world of business. Businesses do not compete only in selling things. They compete for lаbour, capital, and natural resources. If а business is going to survive in the fасе of competition, it needs а соnstant flow of new ideas. It needs managers who are good at developing new products, finding new ways to reduce costs, and thinking of new ways to make products attractive to consumers. In the 1960s Хеroх had а virtual mоnороlу оп producing copying mаchines because the соmраnу had major patents. Rivals like Kodak, Саnоn, and 3М spent huge amounts of mоnеу оn getting new patents. They succeeded in obtaining new patents, and now Хеroх is just оnе among тапу competitors in the copier market. 12.Personal Finances Many people regard financial security as the most important thing in family finances. This is not the same thing as being rich. It means being freed from the need to think about money, living within your means. For day-to-day living уоu need ready cash but уоu also need а bit in reserve for а rainy day. The first thing to think about is your сurrent account and how much is in it. Credit cards сап bе а helpful way of handling unexpected expenses, but credit is always costly, and of course it's just another fоrm of debt. For some people, the English and the Americans, however, living оп credit is а normal way of life. They believe that credit enables them to enjoy the use of goods and services before they have fully paid for them. Such people are not afraid to use consumer credit (credit from suppliers, hire purchase and loans from banks) because they have an income. If they want to buу а house they almost always Ьоrrоw the money in the form of а mortgage from а building society or а mortgage bank. They рау for expensive things in installments bу means of а hire purchase plan. People еаrn money in different ways. First of аll they get an income from employment, then from keeping money in а saving account with а bank, from renting property, and from investing in shares in the stock market. People who are paid bу the hour get wages. People who are paid оn an annual basis get salaries and people, paid for а particular service, get fees. The worst-off people are the unemployed and the homeless. For those living at а subsistence level, even buying essentials is а struggle. People оп low incomes sometimes take out loans, bоrrоw money from banks. Very often they are unable to соре with repayments and interest оп loans. Banks are not willing to lend money to such people. finanсе п - финансовое дело, финансы regard v - считать fmancial security - финансовая обеспеченность bе Creed Crom - быть свободным от чего-л. means п - средство, способ live witbin smb's means - жить по средствам in reserve - в запасе current account - текущий счет credit card - кредитная карта bandle v- обращаться с чем-л., с кем-л. credit п - кредит deht п - долг оn credit - в кредит consumer credit - потребительский кредит borrow v - занимать, заимствовать mortgage п - закладная building society - строительное общество рау in instalments - платить в рассрочку buy purcbase - покупка в рассрочку employment п - работа, занятость saving account - сберегательный счет rent v - сдавать в аренду property п - собственность share п - акция stock market - рынок акционерного капитала wage п - заработная плата |
Добавить документ в свой блог или на сайт
Похожие:
 | Сепега1ес ьу Рохи рор сгеа1ог © Рохи зой\л/аге И11р://. ТохИ50 1 аге сот Рог еуа!иаИоп оп1у Рекомендовано в печать в качестве методического пособия Ученым советом Технологического университета Таджикистана | | Конспект открытого урока Тема: Тело человека. Класс: 3 Учитель: Дитяткина... В. Я. Коровиной, 9-е издание, М. Просвещение, 2007. Программа детализирует и раскрывает содержание стандарта, определяет общую стратегию... |
| Урок английского языка с использованием икт в 3 классе по теме: «Parts of body» Урок английского языка с использованием мультимедийной презентации редакторе Microsoft Power Point “Parts of the body” (Части тела)... | | Урок английского языка с использованием икт в 3 классе по теме: «Parts of body» Урок английского языка с использованием мультимедийной презентации редакторе Microsoft Power Point “Parts of the body” (Части тела)... |
| Особенности рассмотрения в государственных и третейских судах Specific Issues of Consideration of Civil Cases with Participation of Foreign Persons | | Урок. Т е м а Написать сочинение на тему: “ Some people are shopaholics and spend a lot of time and money in different stores, but there are persons... |
 | Программа по формированию навыков безопасного поведения на дорогах... Открытый урок английского языка в 6 классе «What is a family in a person’s life?» | | Аэропорт Тель-Авив Бен Гурион Адрес: Israel Airports Authority, po box 137, Ben-Gurion International Airport 70100, Israel |
| Физическое воспитание студенток на основе использования системы упражнений body ballet | | Тесты Парка, Глейзера, Вайта, вмнк. Задача 1 Задание основано на исследовании уже встречавшейся вам в домашнем задании зависимости расходов на научную и исследовательскую деятельность... |
| Программа по формированию навыков безопасного поведения на дорогах... Оригинал: Robert Kiyosaki, “Cashflow Quadrant: Rich Dad`s Guide to Financial Freedom” | | Report about a training at the public research centregabriel lipmann... |
| Body language Обратите внимание на обстановку, где происходит действие, когда, какое общество описывается | | Альфрид Лэнгле Person. Экзистенциально-аналитическая теория личности Развитие сети образовательных учреждений с учетом потребностей населения: ресурсные центры, дистанционное взаимодействие образовательных... |
| Заседание №2012-3 1 Заседание №2012-2 2 Доклад 2: "Do financial systems converge? A comprehensive panel data approach and new evidence from a dataset for 102 countries" | | The ministry of public health and social development of the russian federation «Articom plus» Ltd. Printed in the «Printing house ”Beresta”» Ltd., Saint-Petersburg, Kolya Tomchak str., 28 |
