Тематический план по курсу «Иностранный язык» очная форма обу
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Просмотровое чтение текста на иностранном языке по специальности и изложение его основной идеи на иностранном или на родном языке. Для экзамена Text 1 At a price below equilibrium, there is a shortage of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This pushes the price down. The model of supply and demand predicts that for given supply and demand curves, price and quantity will stabilize at the price that makes quantity supplied equal to quantity demanded. Similarly, demand-and-supply theory predicts a new price-quantity combination from a shift in demand (as to the figure), or in supply. For a given quantity of a consumer good, the point on the demand curve indicates the value, or marginal utility, to consumers for that unit. It measures what the consumer would be prepared to pay for that unit. The corresponding point on the supply curve measures marginal cost, the increase in total cost to the supplier for the corresponding unit of the good. The price in equilibrium is determined by supply and demand.(973) Text 2 What is economics? One of the things that people discover every day is that you can’t have everything. You are reminded of it every time you shop. Although you may see twenty or thirty items that you would really like to buy, you know that you will have to limit your selection to one or two. Everyone goes through life having to make choices. Every business, even sports teams, must choose from among the things they would like to have because they cannot have everything. Governments cannot have everything. Every year the most important political debates concern questions about spending taxpayers’ money. Neither individuals nor societies can have all the things they would like to have. There simply is not enough of everything. Economists note that there is no limit to the amount or kinds of things that people want. There is a limit to the resources, things used to produce goods and services, available to satisfy those wants. (934) Text 3 Every society is faced with the problem of scarcity. Since there is not enough of everything, everyone – individuals, business firms, and government needs to make choices from among the things they want. In the process they will try to economize, to get the most from what they have. We can define economics as the social science that describes and analyzes how society chooses from among scarce resources to satisfy its wants. The need to choose is imposed on us all by our income, wealth and ability to borrow. Individuals and families are limited by the size of their personal income, savings and ability to borrow. Business firms are limited by their profits, savings and borrowing power, and governments by their ability to tax and borrow. Income, savings, profits and taxes enable people, institutions and government to purchase goods, products you can see or touch, and services, work performed for pay that benefits others.(929) Text 4 Anyone who wishes to begin selling manufactured goods in a foreign country must first do a lot of market research. The intending exporter must decide exactly how he will market his product. He must get the answers about a demand, price and competitiveness. There are many ways of selling manufactured goods to foreign buyers. A manufacturer may sell direct to wholesalers and have his own travelling representatives, or set up his own offices or companies abroad. Alternatively he may sell to an export merchanting house; in this case there is little financial risk for the producer. A third possibility is for the manufacturer to appoint foreign agents, who will work on commission. There is also the question of promotion of the new line, and whether advertising expenses should be paid by the selling agent or by the manufacturer. The media chosen for the advertising will vary according to local preferences and habits. (924) Text 5 The term "market failure" encompasses several problems which may undermine standard economic assumptions. Although economists categorise market failures differently, the following categories emerge in the main texts. Information asymmetries and incomplete markets may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above. Natural monopoly, or the overlapping concepts of "practical" and "technical" monopoly, is an extreme case of failure of competition as a restraint on producers. The problem is described as one where the more of a product is made, the greater the unit costs are. This means it only makes economic sense to have one producer. Public goods are goods which are undersupplied in a typical market. The defining features are that people can consume public goods without having to pay for them and that more than one person can consume the good at the same time.(966) Text 6 Externalities occur where there are significant social costs or benefits from production or consumption that are not reflected in market prices. For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.). Governments often tax and otherwise restrict the sale of goods that have negative externalities and subsidize or otherwise promote the purchase of goods that have positive externalities in an effort to correct the price distortions caused by these externalities. Elementary demand-and-supply theory predicts equilibrium but not the speed of adjustment for changes of equilibrium due to a shift in demand or supply. Macroeconomic instability, addressed below, is a prime source of market failure, whereby a general loss of business confidence or external shock can grind production and distribution to a halt, undermining ordinary markets that are otherwise sound.(941) Text 7 Public finance is the field of economics that deals with budgeting the revenues and expenditures of a public sector entity, usually government. The subject addresses such matters as tax incidence (who really pays a particular tax), cost-benefit analysis of government programs, effects on economic efficiency and income distribution of different kinds of spending and taxes, and fiscal politics. The latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behavior analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats. Welfare economics is a normative branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to simultaneously determine the allocative efficiency within an economy and the income distribution associated with it. It attempts to measure social welfare by examining the economic activities of the individuals that comprise society.(907) Text 8 Macroeconomics examines the economy as a whole to explain broad aggregates and their interactions "top down," that is, using a simplified form of general-equilibrium theory. Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and sub aggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components. It also studies effects of monetary policy and fiscal policy. Since at least the 1960s, macroeconomics has been characterized by further integration as to micro-based modeling of sectors, including rationality of players, efficient use of market information, and imperfect competition. This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject. Macroeconomic analysis also considers factors affecting the long-term level and growth of national income. Such factors include capital accumulation, technological change and labor force growth.(931) Text 9 Money is a means of final payment for goods in most price system economies and the unit of account in which prices are typically stated. It includes currency held by the nonbank public and checkable deposits. It has been described as a social convention, like language, useful to one largely because it is useful to others. As a medium of exchange, money facilitates trade. Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange). Given a diverse array of produced goods and specialized producers, barter may entail a hard-to-locate double coincidence of wants as to what is exchanged, say apples and a book. Money can reduce the transaction cost of exchange because of its ready acceptability. At the level of an economy, theory and evidence are consistent with a positive relationship running from the total money supply to the nominal value of total output and to the general price level. (911) Text 10 Economist have two ways of looking at economics and the economy. Macroeconomics is the study of he economy as a whole; microeconomics is the study of individual consumers and the business firm. Macroeconomics examines questions such as how fast the economy is running; how much overall is being generated. It also seeks solutions to macro-economic problems such as how employment can be increased, and what can be done to increase the output of of goods and service. Microeconomics examines cause-and-effect relationships that influence choices of individuals, business firms and society. It is concerned with things such as scarcity, choice and opportunity costs, and with production and consumption. Principal emphasis is given by macroeconomics to the study of prices and their relationship to units in the economy. There are a number of ways in which a government can organize it's economy and the type of system chosen is critical in shaping environment, in which businesses operate.(902) Лист переутверждения учебно-методического комплекса Учебно-методический комплекс: одобрен на 2011/2012 учебный год. Протокол № 11 заседания кафедры от “17”августа 2011 г. Зав. кафедрой Дедяев Ю.М. одобрен на 2012/2013 учебный год. Протокол № 11 заседания кафедры от “18”августа 2012 г. Зав. кафедрой Дедяев Ю.М. одобрен на 2013/2014 учебный год. Протокол № 5 заседания кафедры от “18 ”января 2013 г. Зав. кафедрой Дедяев Ю.М. |
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