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«Дальневосточный федеральный университет» (ДВФУ) ШколА ГУМАНИТАРНЫХ НАУК ДВФУ ГЛОССАРИЙ по дисциплине «Практикум по изучению религиозной и религиоведческой литературы на иностранном языке» Направление подготовки 030100.68 Философия г. Владивосток 2012 ГЛОССАРИЙ ВВЕДЕНИЕ Настоящий глоссарий предназначен для магистрантов Школы гуманитарных наук Дальневосточного федерального университета, проходящих практикум по изучению религиозной и религиоведческой литературы на иностранном (английском) языке. Количество часов, отводимых учебной программой на аудиторные занятия (34 часа), невелико. Сложность изучения языка религиозной и религиоведческой литературы усугубляется еще и тем, что большинство существующих пособий по английскому языку в данном направлении касаются чаще текстов чисто философской или социологической составляющей. Специальных пособий, помогающих целенаправленно усваивать лексику и грамматические конструкции, характерные для религиоведческой литературы, пока еще не встречаются. Определенную помощь может оказать учебная литература, составленная для студентов духовных семинарий и академий. Однако они заметно страдают уклоном в освоение моноконфессиональной лексики, не отражая при этом слова и понятия, которые могут встречаться в обороте иных исповеданий. Дополнительно необходимо широко использовать философские энциклопедии и словари, справочную литературу по общенаучной лексике, однако это все отводится на самостоятельную работу магистрантов. Для закрепления материала в ходе аудиторных практических занятий самостоятельная работа должна быть организована максимально эффективно. Поэтому данный Краткий Глоссарий имеет целью, в первую очередь, предоставить магистрантам такой корпус лексики, знание которого позволит им реже обращаться к словарю при самостоятельном чтении религиозных и религиоведческих текстов на английском языке. Это даст возможность широко пользоваться информацией из англоязычных источников по направлению подготовки. Предполагается, что у магистрантов имеется базовая подготовка по английскому языку и философии, в том числе религиозной, поэтому религиозно-философский и религиоведческий понятийный аппарат на русском языке им знаком. В таких случаях английское соответствие позволяет включать догадку и активизировать не только сознательное, но и подсознательное восприятие и понимание слова. Так как практикум предназначен для исследования литературы, то есть для работы с письменным языком, то слова в Глоссарии даются без транскрипции. (Чтобы облегчить усвоение некоторых философских и религиозных понятий, иногда приводится также латинское или греческое соответствие, что может давать выход и к исследованиям, опубликованным не только на английском, но и на иных европейских языках. Это своего рода «интернациональная» лексика.) Данный глоссарий является первым опытом подобного рода в стенах ДВФУ, а потому автор-составитель ожидает в письменном виде ценные критические замечания, которые помогут этот опыт усовершенствовать. Замечания следует направлять на кафедру теологии и религиоведения Иванову А.М. При составлении глоссария были использованы следующие словари: The Routledge Dictionary of Philosophy, Fourth Edition, Michael Proudfoot and A. R. Lacey. New York, 2010. – 462 p. A Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion, EDITED BY Charles Taliaferro and Elsa J. Marty. New York, London. 2010. – 317 p. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Second Edition, General Editor Robert Audi. Cambridge, New York, 1999. – 1032 p. A POSTERIORI. Latin, “from later.” A posteriori knowledge stems from experience or observation and so cannot be known beforehand by pure reason or conceptual analysis. We know a posteriori, for example, that Socrates was executed in 399 BCE. Some traditional arguments for God’s existence such as the teleological and design arguments are developed a posteriori. A PRIORI. Latin, “from earlier.” A proposition is known a priori when it is known without employing empirical observations or experience. Arguably, one may know a priori that there cannot be a square circle. ABRAHAMIC FAITHS. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are called Abrahamic because they trace their history back to the Hebrew patriarch Abraham (often dated in the twentieth or twenty-first century BCE). Judaism, Christianity, and Islam each see themselves as rooted in Abrahamic faith, as displayed in the Hebrew Bible, the Christian Old Testament (essentially the Hebrew Bible) and New Testament, and the Qur’an. Since the seventeenth century, “theism” has been the common term used in English to refer to the central concept of God in the Abrahamic faiths. According to the classical forms of these faiths, God is the one and sole God (they are monotheistic as opposed to polytheistic) who both created and sustains the cosmos. God either created the cosmos out of nothing, that is, ex nihilo, or else it has always existed but depends for its existence upon God’s conserving, creative will (some Islamic philosophers have claimed that the cosmos has always existed as God’s sustained creation, but the great majority of philosophers in these three traditions have held that the cosmos had a beginning). Creation out of nothing means that God did not use or require anything external from God in creating everything. The cosmos depends upon God’s conserving, continuous will in the same way light depends on a source or a song depends on a singer. If the source of the light goes out or the singer stops singing, the light and song cease. Traditionally, creation is not thought of as a thing that an agent might fashion and then abandon; the idea of God making creation and then neglecting it—the way a person might make a machine and then abandon it—is utterly foreign to theism. In these religions, God is said to exist necessarily, not contingently. God exists in God’s self, not as the creation of some greater being (a super-God) or force of nature. God is also not a mode of something more fundamental, the way a wave is a mode of the sea or a movement is a mode of the dance. The cosmos, in contrast to God, exists contingently but not necessarily—it might not have existed at all; God’s existence is unconditional insofar as it does not depend upon any external conditions, whereas the cosmos is conditional. Theists hold that God is, rather, a substantial reality: a being not explainable in terms that are more fundamental than itself. God is without parts, i.e., not an aggregate or compilation of things. Theists describe God as holy or sacred, a reality that is of unsurpassable greatness. God is therefore also thought of as perfectly good, beautiful, all-powerful (omnipotent), present everywhere (omnipresent), and all-knowing (omniscient). God is without origin and without end, everlasting or eternal. Because of all this, God is worthy of worship and morally sovereign (worthy of obedience). Finally, God is manifest in human history; God’s nature and will are displayed in the tradition’s sacred scriptures. Arguably, the most central attribute of God in the Abrahamic traditions is goodness. The idea that God is not good or the fundamental source of goodness would be akin to the idea of a square circle: an utter contradiction. Theists in these traditions differ on some of the divine attributes. Some, for example, claim that God knows all future events with certainty, whereas others argue that no being (including God) can have such knowledge. Some theists believe that God transcends both space and time altogether, while other theists hold that God pervades the spatial world and is temporal (there is before, during, and after for God). ABSOLUTE, the, term used by idealists to describe the one independent reality of which all things are an expression. Kant used the adjective ‘absolute’ to characterize what is unconditionally valid. ABSOLUTION. From the Latin absolvo, meaning “set free.” Absolution is the forgiveness of sins and the removal of any connected penalties. It refers primarily to a Christian practice in which a priest or minister absolves the sins of people in the name of God following their confession, but it may also be used simply to refer to God’s direct forgiveness without any human intermediary. ACTUALITY AND POTENTIALITY. A dichotomy originally introduced in Aristotle’s Metaphysics concerning topics of substance and matter that was later adopted into theology by thinkers such as St. Thomas of Aquinas. In Thomism, God is described as pure act: an eternal, immutable, supremely excellent being. God has no unrealized potentiality. Other forms of theism that see God as temporal and subject to change allow for divine potentiality. Some attention is given to potentiality and actuality in the moral debate over abortion. Some philosophers contend that at early stages of fetal development there is a potential but not actual person. AD HOMINEM. A form of fallacious argument which irrelevantly criticizes the person (literally ‘against the person’) rather than the person’s argument. AETIOLOGY (or etiology). The philosophical study of causes. See CAUSATION. AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY. Today, this term covers a host of distinct philosophical traditions, which could be variously categorized as theistic, polytheist, panpsychic, pantheist, and materialist. The concept of “Africa” as a united continent is itself a problematic category, for while it may reflect a European classification and thus a colonial point of view, it may also reflect a pan-African point of view that marks the postcolonial era. Philosophers of religion in the twentieth and twenty-first century have addressed some of the following ideas in an African context: the concept of “religion,” the relationship between the divine and nature, reverence of ancestors, the concept of “race,” authenticity (is there an essential African point of view? Is colonial African philosophy inauthentic? When is philosophy postcolonial?), the moral and religious significance of future generations, the ethics of famine relief, the relationship between the individual and community, slavery, repentance, and duties of reparation. AGATHOLOGY. Theories of the good, from the Greek agathos (good) and logos (word). AGNOSTICISM. From the Greek a +ginoskein, meaning “to not know.” An agnostic about God is someone who claims not to know whether or not God exists. A more radical form of agnosticism claims that no one knows whether or not God exists. The latter claim is more ambitious because it entails that, if there is a God, not even God knows that God exists. In the twentieth century some argued that agnosticism amounts to a practiced form of atheism, but while some agnostics might be deemed atheists or non-theists insofar as their lives are not informed by theistic convictions, an agnostic (unlike some atheists) may live as though the existence of God is a bona fide possibility. An agnostic may even engage in theistic practices (such as prayer and worship) on the grounds that if God exists such practices have great value. AHIMSA (Sanskrit), traditionally and literally, nonviolence to living creatures; for modern Indian thinkers, a positive sense of kindness to all creatures. To the Jains, ahimsa was a vow to injure no living being (jiva) in thought, word, or deed. Many Buddhists practice ahimsa as a precept that denies the existence of the ego, since injuring another is an assertion of egoism. With the modern period, particularly Gandhi, ahimsa was equated with self-sacrificial love for all beings. For Gandhi it was the first vow of the satyagrahi, the one who “held onto Truth,” the nonviolent resister. ALLAH. Arabic for “God.” See also ISLAM. ANALYTIC STATEMENTS. Propositions whose denial involve a contradiction; for example, “A square has four right angles.” The universal consistency of an analytic statement is most often due to its definitional nature, that is, it does not add anything new but rather describes the subject involved. A controversial topic relevant to philosophers of religion is whether or not the statement, “God is good,” is analytic. ANGELS. From the Greek angelos, meaning “messenger.” Angels have played an important role in the scriptures of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Angels are generally understood as spiritual beings created by God; they are immortal and superior to humans in both knowledge of the divine and goodness. The Hebrew word for angel in the Bible is mal’ak, which also means messenger, but it was not until the Hellenistic period of Judaism that a developed “angelology” began to emerge in which angels were differentiated from human messengers and God. Angels serve manifold purposes: they are God’s heavenly court, standing in adoration around God’s throne throughout eternity; they convey commands and guidance to God’s human servants; and, according to Thomas of Aquinas, each baptized soul acquires one “guardian angel,” an image which has become engrained in popular culture over the years. According to Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, there are nine distinct choirs of angels, namely (in descending order of rank) seraphim, cherubim, thrones, dominions, virtues, powers, principalities, archangels, and angels. It is commonly believed that fallen angels, including Lucifer (Satan), were expelled from heaven by God because of rebellion, and that they now control the powers of evil and reside in hell. Other than Satan, there are only four angels named in the Bible (Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel), two of whom are only in the apocryphal books of Tobit and Enoch. Muslims believe that the Qur’an itself was revealed to Muhammad by the angel Jibril (Gabriel). The existence of angels has been advanced on the basis of scriptural authority, experiential testimony (ostensibly credible narratives of the appearance of angels), and an appeal to the principle of plenitude. According to the latter, God is essentially good and of limitless power. The principle of plenitude is that the very nature of goodness is self-diffusive (its character is generative and productive rather than insular) and variety is itself good (bonum variationis). Given these premises, it has been argued that God would create all manner of different orders of good beings. Such beings could very well include incorporeal agents, hence angels. ANOMIE. Broken limits. An anomic person is one who is in a state without norms or rules. In some religions, suicide is considered an anomic act for it breaks the foundational norm of self-preservation and integrity. ANTHROPOMORPHISM. The tendency to attribute human qualities to non-human things. APOLOGETICS. The systematic defence of a position and the rebuttal of counter-arguments, especially in connection with religion. From Socrates’ speech in his own defence at his trial in Plato’s Apology. ANTICHRIST. The “antichrist” often is referred to in an eschatological fashion and is treated as synonymous with the devil. In the New Testament, however, the antichrist is not someone who attempts to assume the place of Christ, but rather someone who turns against Christ. During the Reformation, the Protestants, especially Wycliffe and Luther, vehemently attacked the papacy as the antichrist. Today, the term’s primary usage is to personify evil. APOCALYPSE. From the Greek apokalyptein, meaning “disclosure, revelation, unveiling.” Strictly speaking it refers to a literary genre wherein heavenly secrets are disclosed or the events of the end of the world are described (for example, the biblical books of Daniel and Revelation). In contemporary culture it is often used to refer to the imminent end of the world. Apocalyptic literature often includes a radical critique of the cultural and religious status quo, especially of the political elites. APOCRYPHA. From the Greek apokruphos,meaning “hidden, unknown.” Extrabiblical literature such as the books of Tobit and 1 Maccabees that were present in the Septuagint and the Vulgate but not the Hebrew Bible are considered to be apocryphal. APOPHATIC THEOLOGY. Also known as negative theology, apophatic theology emphasizes God’s radical transcendence to the effect that only negative properties may be attributed to God. God is not material, not spatial, not temporal, not finite, and so on. Some advocates of apophatic theology go so far as to claim that even “existence” cannot be attributed to God; on this view, God may be said to be beyond existence or being. ASCETICISM. The practice of selfdiscipline, often through self-denial or the mastering of desires (fasting involves control over the desire for food, a vigil involves control over the urge to sleep) for a religious end such as repentance, worship, the cultivation of virtue, or union or communion with God. Asceticism is widespread among religious traditions, theistic and non-theistic. Buddhist ascetic practices are closely linked with the purging of desire and seeing through the illusory nature of ourselves as substantial individual beings. ATHEISM. From the Greek, meaning “without God.” Atheism is the denial that there is a God. Historically, the term achieved currency as a denial of theism, but the term today is broader and is often used as the denial of either a theistic or non-theistic view of God. AVATAR. A term used in Indian religions to refer to a divine incarnation or manifestation. See also HINDUISM. BASIC BELIEFS. Beliefs that do not rely on other beliefs for justification (for example, beliefs based on sense-experience, self-evident beliefs, incorrigible beliefs). See FOUNDATIONALISM. BHAKTI. Sanskrit, “devotion.” A devotional movement in Hinduism that flourished in South India beginning in the seventh century CE and in North India during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It rejected the sacrificial ritualism and Brahminical (upper-caste) hegemony of the Vedic tradition, opening the door for women and members of lower castes to engage in devotional music and dance in pursuit of a mystical union with the divine. See also HINDUISM. BODHISATTVA. A Sanskrit term that, in Buddhism, refers to a being who is on the way to becoming a Buddha. Various traditions within Buddhism offer different paths toward release from suffering and enlightenment. The bodhisattva path is one aimed at the highest form of enlightenment (to be a Buddha) and begins with the formation of a compassionate intention to assist all sentient beings. Traditionally, a vow was taken in the presence of a Buddha to enter upon the bodhisattva path. This path includes basic moral purification, meditative practices, and the development of various disciplines until certain non-retrogressive states are reached. Part of the purpose of the path is to accumulate merit, which can then be used to assist all sentient beings. Bodhisattvas, then, are chiefly characterized by compassion for all sentient beings and wisdom to see into the true nature of all reality. They are often seen as compassionate savior figures, particularly in the Mahayana tradition (although they are present in earlier forms of Buddhism as well). Important examples are Maitreya (the Buddha to come), Avalokitesvara (the bodhisattva of compassion—in Tibetan Buddhism the Dalai Lama is an incarnation of this bodhisattva), and Manjusri (the bodhisattva of wisdom). BUDDHISM. Buddhism emerged from Hinduism, tracing its origin to Gautama Sakyamuni, who lived in northern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE and came to be known as the Buddha (“Enlightened One”). His teaching centers on the Four Noble Truths; (1) life is full of suffering, pain, and misery (dukka), (2) the origin of suffering is in desire (tanha), (3) the extinction of suffering can be brought about by the extinction of desire, and (4) the way to extinguish desire is by following the Noble Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path consists of right understanding, right aspirations or attitudes, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, mindfulness, and contemplation or composure. Early Buddhist teaching tended to be non-theistic, underscoring instead the absence of the self (anatta) and the impermanence of life. In its earliest forms, Buddhism did not have a developed metaphysics (that is, a theory of the structure of reality, the nature of space, time, and so on), but it did include belief in reincarnation, skepticism about the substantial nature of persons existing over time, and either a denial of the existence of Brahman or the treatment of Brahman as inconsequential. This is its clearest departure from Hinduism. The goal of the religious life is nirvana, a transformation of human consciousness that involves shedding the illusion of selfhood. Schools of Buddhism include Theravada Buddhism, the oldest and strictest in terms of promoting the importance of monastic life; Mahayana Buddhism, which emerged later and displays less resistance to Hindu themes and does not place as stringent an emphasis on monastic vocation; Pure Land Buddhism; and Zen Buddhism. CABALA. From the Hebrew, meaning the “received” or “traditional.” The Cabala is a varied set of teachings and literature that emerged from pre-Christian Judaism through the fourteenth century and is outside of the Hebrew Bible. Cabala teaching reflects Neoplatonic influence in its portrait of creation in terms of emanation. Sin is separation from the source of being, God, and salvation is to be found in union with God. Cabala teaching is un-orthodox; for example, some Cabala tradition posits that God exists beyond the God of orthodoxy. CALVINISM. Calvinism is a set of theological beliefs adapted by followers of John Calvin’s teachings. Calvinism has been accepted by some Protestant churches as a doctrine which stresses predestination, the need and want for God’s grace, and the sovereignty of God. Calvinism began in the sixteenth century as a thought system stressing God as the key reference point in everything that takes place, both on a human and a cosmic level. Under this assumption, humans are completely dependent upon God for common and special grace leading to salvation. The key points of Calvinism can be summarized with the acronym TULIP: Total Depravity, Unconditional Election, Limited Atonement, Irresistible Grace, and Perseverance of the Saints. CATHOLIC / CATHOLICISM. From the Greek kath + holou, meaning “about whole.” While sometimes used generally to mean “universal,” the English term is often treated as an abbreviation for being a Roman Catholic. However, technically all Christian traditions that accept the Nicene Creed believe that they too are part of the catholic (or universal) Church. Anglicans and Lutherans, for example, sometimes describe themselves as catholic and reformed. CHRISTIANITY. With over two billion adherents today, Christianity is the world’s largest religion. Christians accept the Hebrew scriptures and Judaism’s understanding of God’s action in history, but interprets it as foreshadowing the later incarnation of God as Jesus Christ (a person who has both divine and human natures), whose birth, life, teaching, miracles, suffering, death, and resurrection are believed to be the principle means by which God delivers creation from its sin (moral and spiritual evil) and devastation. As part of its teaching about the incarnation, Christianity holds that while God is one, God is constituted by three persons in a supreme, singular unity called the trinity. COMPASSION. Literally “feeling with”, a compassionate person is one who empathizes (or sympathizes) with those believed to be harmed and who is disposed to go to their aid. CONFESSION. The acknowledgment of sin or guilt. The New Testament commands confession: “confess your sins to one another, that you may be healed”(James 5:16). Some religions (Christianity and Buddhism, for example) have rites of public confession and promote the practice of self-examination as a prelude to confession. |
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