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CONFUCIANISM / CONFUCIUS (a.k.a. K’ung fu-tzu) (551–479 BCE). Confucianism is a social and political philosophy originating in China that has also profoundly shaped Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. It takes its name from Confucius, the Latinized form of Kong Fuzi (“Master Kong”), the most important figure in East Asian intellectual history. Confucius was born during the Spring and Autumn Period, when China was politically divided and the Zhou dynasty was in decline. His disciples compiled his teachings in the Lunyu or Analects. Confucius taught that social and political order depended on individual selfcultivation, behavior regulated by li or ritual, and a hierarchical social order based on age, gender, and status. Through self-cultivation one develops the virtues of humaneness, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom, manifested in li. Li originally referred to religious behavior—proper ceremony and rites—but came to refer to ritualized behavior between people according to their status. Li, for example, reinforced the proper relationship in the five bonds between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. Li was intended to inculcate the proper attitudes of loyalty and obedience toward superiors and benevolence toward inferiors. Although Confucius assumed a ruler would inherit his position from his father, a ruler’s legitimacy depended on his ruling morally. The purpose of government is to promote the subjects’ welfare, and a ruler is expected to serve as a moral exemplar for his subjects. His rule is ultimately entrusted to him by a mandate from Heaven (tian), a transcendent moral order. Confucianism was further developed by Mencius (c. 372–289 BCE) and later generations, and it was adopted by the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). The commentaries of Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE) on the classical Confucian canon became the orthodox interpretation of Confucianism. Orthodoxy was enforced by the civil service examination system, the principal means of recruiting government officials from the seventh century to 1905, when the Confucian civil service examinations were abolished. CONSCIENCE. The power to discern what appears to be morally right or wrong, a virtue or vice. Religious ethicists debate the extent to which a person’s conscience is normative: if a person’s conscience leads her to think X is morally required, does she have a duty to do X? Problem cases include cases when a person’s conscience may be disordered but not due to any blameworthy act of the person herself. CONSCIOUSNESS. Widely acknowledged as difficult to define, the English term “consciousness” was employed by Ralph Cudworth in the seventeenth century to designate the state of awareness or experience that persons have when awake, as when persons think, feel, sense, emote, desire, intentionally act, and so on. In modern philosophy, controversy arises over whether consciousness is a real state distinct from bodily states and processes or whether it is a configuration of non-conscious states and not a genuinely distinct, irreducible property. The philosophy of consciousness has relevance for a great deal of philosophy of religion: theists argue, for example, that they offer a better account of consciousness than naturalists, while some naturalists seeks to explain consciousness in exhaustively scientific, non-conscious terms and argue that they offer a better account than theists. Some Buddhist and Hindu philosophers have developed sophisticated accounts of consciousness to bolster either no-self theories of human nature or for the articulation of the relationship between Brahman and atman. COOPERATION WITH EVIL. Cases when a person aids or does not prevent an evil. Cicero advanced the concept of passive injustice, when a person does not object to or protest an evident evil. Traditional moral theology distinguished between formal cooperation (in which a person consents or agrees with an evil) versus material cooperation with or without consent (for example, a person sells or gives to a burglar tools needed for a robbery). COVENANT. From the Latin convenire, meaning “to come together.” The covenant is a key element in Judaism, which traces its lineage and inheritance to the covenant between Abraham and God. There are also covenants between Adam and Eve and God, Noah and God, and a renewal of covenantal relations with Judah and Moses. A covenant is sometimes distinguished from a contract. A covenant tends to define the life of the participants who internalize their role in a covenantal relationship. Contractual relations can be less definitive of one’s identity and refer to more impersonal agreements. CREATIONISM. Popular term for the view that all species on earth were created separately by God rather than diverse species evolving from simpler, common organisms. A “literal” reading of Genesis 1 appears to support creationism, while Genesis 1 may alternatively be read as affirming the goodness of diverse kinds in a created order compatible with evolution. This latter view sees creation as good, in part, for its diversification in keeping with the medieval precept bonum est multiplex (good or goodness is multiple or is a multitude). CREATOR. God is conceived of as the creator of the cosmos in theistic religious traditions. In classical Jewish, Christian, and Islamic theology God creates freely and therefore God is not necessarily a creator, though some classical theologians claim that God is essentially good, it is of the nature of goodness to be selfdiffusive, and therefore God’s nature strongly inclines or makes fitting God’s being the creator. DEDUCTION. An argument involving necessary entailment. From the thesis “No humans are immortal,” one may deduce, “No immortal is human.” DEISM. The tradition believing that the cosmos is created by God, but God is not revealed through miracles in human history and does not play an active, sustaining role in creation. Some deists believe in the goodness of God and an individual afterlife. Some deists historically engaged in strenuous anti-Christian polemics (Voltaire and Thomas Paine), whereas others sought to make deism compatible with Christian practice (Thomas Jefferson’s Christianity embraced Christ’s moral teaching but he expunged all miracle narratives from his Bible). DHARMA. Sanskrit, “carrying / holding.”A term in Indian religions used to refer to right action. It is sometimes used as a translation of term religion. See also HINDUISM. DUTY. From the Latin debere for “to owe.” In moral theory, duties and obligations (the terms are not used synonymously) are sometimes contrasted with virtues and vices. Obligations involve states of character and emotions (passions, the disposition to pleasure or sorrow), whereas duties are sometimes thought to have normative authority no matter what one’s emotions or character. ECUMENISM. From the Greek oikoumene, meaning “the inhabited world.” Ecumenism is the movement to promote religious unity. Although sometimes used to refer to unity between religions, ecumenism refers primarily to efforts for unity within a religious tradition, e.g., between Catholics and Protestants. EDICT OF MILAN. The proclamation declaring the toleration of Christians and the restoration of their property in 313 CE by Constantine the Great and Licinius. EIGHTFOLD PATH. The ideal way of living according to the Buddhist faith that leads to enlightenment: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. ESCHATOLOGY. From the Greek eschatos, meaning “last.” Accordingly, it designates the branch of Christian theology that deals with the last things. Traditionally, it has focused on four topics: death, judgment, heaven, and hell. Personal eschatology focuses on the ultimate fate of individuals after their personal death and judgment, which is why heaven and hell receive so much attention in the field. Cosmic eschatology broadens the horizon to consider the final resolution and outcome of the entire created order. Eschatology is thus concerned with the “end” of the world in the teleological sense as well as the temporal. It seeks to discern the purposes for which God created the world and how God will accomplish them. Although eschatology has sometimes been treated as a mere appendage to systematic theology, the reality is that it is integral to the Christian message, and any sound version of theology must be thoroughly eschatological. This is evident from the pregnant line Christians repeat when they celebrate the Eucharist: “Christ has died; Christ is risen; Christ will come again.” The resurrection of Christ is itself an eschatological event that portends his coming again and the final judgment. The resurrection also points out one of the main tensions and matters of debate, namely, the relationship between “realized eschatology” and “futurist eschatology.” The former focuses on life with God in the here and now, and the transformation the gospel has already accomplished. The latter, by contrast, anticipates things yet to come. A fully adequate eschatology includes both elements, recognizing that eschatology has been inaugurated, but not consummated. As it is often put, there is an “already” as well as a “not yet” dimension to eschatology. God’s Kingdom is indeed present, but it is not yet here in its fullness. Christians still pray for the day when God’s will is fully done on earth as it is in heaven. Interest in eschatology was at a low point in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when belief in human progress was at its height, and many believed utopia could be brought to earth by education and technology. The later twentieth century and early twenty-first century, by contrast, witnessed an explosion of renewed interest in the field. No doubt a major factor in this development was the emergence in popular culture of fundamentalist eschatology through several best selling books. These books not only promulgated the theory of the “rapture” of the church, followed by the great tribulation, and then the millennial reign of Christ, but also correlated these predictions with certain political events, particularly involving Israel and the Middle East. Another fascinating development in contemporary eschatology is the conversation between theologians and cosmologists, particularly as these relate to scientific predictions of how the world will end. Scientific accounts of the end of the world point to ultimate cosmological futility with all life being destroyed either in a universe that grows ever colder as it continues to expand, or in a dramatic implosion that will turn the universe into a melting pot. These discussions underline the reality that any meaningful eschatology requires a God beyond the natural order, who has the power to raise the dead and make all things new. ESSENCE. The term is often used to describe the core concept of a being. Thus, for classical theists, the essence of God is existence. On this view, the very core concept of God is of a being who exists and (for most Muslim philosophers and for Christian philosophers who follow Anselm) exists necessarily. ETERNAL. A term used to describe something that is either everlasting (without beginning or end temporally) or timeless (nontemporal). EUCHARIST. From the Greek for “thanksgiving,” the Eucharist is the central Christian rite of sharing consecrated bread and wine in remembrance of Christ’s life, passion, death, and resurrection. It is also called the Mass, Holy Communion, or the Lord’s Supper. Christian theologians have advanced different accounts of the consecrated bread and wine. Sacramental realists affirm that Christ is truly present in these elements or in the elements plus the full Eucharistic rite as a whole. See also TRANSUBSTANTIATION. EVERLASTING. Without a temporal beginning or end. Some theists contend that while God is everlasting, God is not atemporally eternal or timeless. EVIL, THE PROBLEM OF. If there is an all-powerful, all-good, and all-knowing God, then why is there evil? This is the classical theistic problem of evil that comes in the form of either a deductive or a probabilistic argument. Deductive arguments contend that there is a strict logical incompatibility between theism and the existence of evil. Probabilistic arguments usually concede that it is logically possible for God and evil to co-exist, but they argue that, given the amount of evil that exists, it is unlikely or improbable that God exists. A theodicy attempts to justify the apparent problem of the existence of evil in God’s creation. FAITH. May refer either to what is believed (religious teachings or creeds) or the act of believing itself. The latter has a subjective dimension, whereas the former is often thought to be objective in the sense that its truth or falsehood does not rest on the believer’s subjective state. Philosophers and theologians have advanced competing models of faith. Fideists claim that religious faith does not require external evidential justification. Some hold that faith is evidentially justified (Richard Swinburne is a prime example). Norman Malcolm distinguished between faith in (as in “faith in God”) versus faith that (as in “faith that God exists”), claiming that one can have the first without the second. Roger Trigg has countered that it makes no sense to have faith in God unless one believes (hopes or assumes) God exists. Some theologians describe “faith” as a gift, conferred through God’s mercy. FREEDOM, POSITIVE / NEGATIVE. Freedom to versus freedom from acting upon a predicate. One has positive freedom when one has the ability and opportunity to speak. One has negative freedom when one is not restrained by, for example, chains or prison. Negative freedom can occur without positive freedom, but positive freedom requires at least some minimal negative freedom. GOD. In Abrahamic faiths, “God” functions as a descriptive noun referring to a supreme, powerful reality that is the object of religious belief and practice. So, in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, God is the all good, necessarily existing creator and sustainer of the cosmos. In these traditions, “God” sometimes functions as a proper name referring to the being who is encountered in religious experience as opposed to standing for the descriptive role as, for example, the one who creates, sustains, and redeems. Concepts of God vary across cultures and traditions, some of which are monotheistic while others are polytheistic and pantheistic. Some concepts of God maintain a clear distinction between God and the cosmos (God is not the creation), while others identify God and the natural world (Spinoza). GOLDEN RULE. “Do onto others as you would have others do onto you.” This ethical command occurs in numerous religious traditions, although usually in the negative form; e.g., Confucius said “What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.” GURU (Sanskrit, “teacher”). A term used in Indian religions to refer to a teacher, usually of a spiritual nature. HADITH. Sayings ascribed to the prophet Muhammad. The collection is considered the second most holy text in Islam, the Qur’an being the first. HEDONISM. The belief that pleasure or happiness is the only basic good: all other goods derive their goodness directly or indirectly because of pleasure or happiness. Hedonism can allow that there are a host of different levels of pleasure, including refined intellectual and aesthetic pleasures. A hedonist may even defend altruism as a preeminent pleasure. As a theory of the good, hedonists need not see goodness as only a human matter; assuming at least some nonhuman animals experience pleasure or happiness, their well-being should also be considered as being good. |
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