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| HINDUISM. Hinduism is so diverse that it is difficult to use the term as an umbrella category even to designate a host of interconnected ideas and traditions. “Hindu” is Persian for the name of a river that Greeks referred to as the Indos and the British as the Indus, from which we get the name “Indian”. Hinduism names the various traditions that have flourished in the Indian subcontinent, going back to before the second millennium BCE. The most common feature of what is considered Hinduism is reverence for the Vedic scriptures, a rich collection of oral material, some of it highly philosophical, especially the Upanishads. Unlike the three monotheistic religions, Hinduism does not look back to a singular historical figure such as Abraham. According to one strand of Hinduism, Advaita Vedanta (a strand that has received a great deal of attention from Western philosophers from the nineteenth century to the present day), this world of space and time is non-different in its essential nature from Brahman, the infinite. The world appears to us to consist of discreet diverse objects because we are ignorant, but behind the diverse objects and forms we observe in what may be called the phenomenal or apparent world (the world of phenomena and appearances) there is the formless, reality of Brahman. Advaita Vedanta rejects ontological duality (Advaita comes from the Sanskrit term for “non-duality”), arguing that Brahman alone is ultimately real. Advaita does not deny the existence of a diverse world of space and time, but understands the many to be an appearance of the one Brahman. Shankara (788–820) was one of the greatest teachers of this nondualist tradition within Hinduism. Other, theistic strands of Hinduism construe the divine as personal, all-good, powerful, knowing, creative, loving, and so on. Theistic elements may be seen, for example, in the Bhagavad Gita and its teaching about the love of God. Ramanuja (eleventh century) and Madhva (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) are well known theistic representatives of Hinduism. There are also lively polytheistic elements within Hinduism. Popular Hindu practice includes a rich polytheism, and for this reason it has been called the religion of 330 million gods (devas). There is a strong orientation in the Hindu tradition to understanding the multiple deities as different name and form expressions of the infinite Brahman. This makes it difficult to characterize Hinduism as polytheistic in the generally understood sense of the term. Whether they follow a non-dual or a theistic form of Hinduism, many Hindus believe that a trinity of gods—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—is the cardinal, supreme manifestation of Brahman. Brahma is the creator of the world, Vishnu is the sustainer (variously manifested in the world, e.g., as Krishna and Rama, incarnations or avatars who instruct and enlighten), and Shiva is the destroyer, the Lord of time and change. Most Hindus believe in reincarnation. The soul migrates through different lives, according to principles of karma (Sanskrit for “deed” or “action”), the moral consequence of one’s actions. Karma is often associated with (and believed to be a chief justification for) a strict social caste system. Not all Hindus support such a system, and some Hindu reformers in the modern era argue for its abolition. The final consummation or enlightenment is moksha (or release) from ignorance and samsara, the material cycle of death and rebirth. In non-dual forms of Hinduism, liberation is achieved by overcoming the false dualism of Brahman and the individual self or soul (atman) and discovering their essential identity. Hinduism has a legacy of inclusive spirituality. It accepts the validity and value of other religions. The one God may be worshiped under a variety of names and forms. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna declares: “If any worshiper do reverence with faith to any God whatever, I make his faith firm, and in that faith he reverences his god, and gains his desires, for it is I who bestow them” (vii. 21–2). Hinduism has also absorbed and, to some extent, integrated some of the teaching and narratives of Buddhism. Although Hinduism and Islam have sometimes been in painful conflict, there are also many cases of tolerance and collaboration. HOLY SPIRIT. The third member of the trinity in the Christian faith. In the words of the Nicene Creed: “And I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of Life; who proceeds from the Father (and the Son); who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets.” Controversy occurs between the Western, Latin church (Catholic and Protestant), which sees the Holy Spirit as proceeding from the Father and the Son, and the Eastern, Orthodox church, which holds that the Holy Spirit only proceeds from the Father. Some Orthodox Christians claim that the West’s addition of the filioque clause (“and the Son”) resulted in a subordination of the Holy Spirit, which has led the West to have a less stable, more erratic history of spirituality and mysticism. By understanding the Holy Spirit as proceeding from the Father alone, Eastern Orthodox Christians believe they accord a higher role to religious experience. IDEALISM. A general term that has been employed to describe worldviews in which the mind or the mental is foundational in the order of being. George Berkeley is a clear example of an idealist as he held that reality is at base constituted by God, finite spirits, and minds; what we think of as mind-independent matter is constituted by perceptual experiences, human and divine. Berkeley’s outlook is sometimes called subjective idealism. More difficult to classify is Hegel who has been described as an objective idealist. Hegel did not think the material world was constituted by minds and their states, but he thought that all of reality reflected a rational structure that is supremely intelligible to mind. IDOL / IDOLATRY. Treating a person, thing, or event with the praise and allegiance owed to God. Idolatry is the worship of any image or object, and an idol is that which assumes the role of a false God. In monotheistic faiths idolatry is often expanded to encompass the valuing of any person, object, or activity above God. For example, when Moses descended Mt. Horeb with the Ten Commandments, he discovered the Israelites engaged in idolatry, worshiping a statue of a golden calf. Today, idols may consist of wealth, power, eros, or any number of objects or acts that can come to control a person’s life rather than God or that which is truly sacred. Idolatry is negative in the Abrahamic traditions because it involves the worshiping of a worldly creation, when it is only the creator that deserves such credit. Certain branches of Christianity, including Roman Catholicism and the Orthodox denominations, allow for the depiction of religious figures, such as Jesus Christ. However, the depiction of religious figures falls under the umbrella of idolatry in fundamentalist Christian denominations, Judaism, and Islam. Hinduism is sometimes viewed as an idolatrous faith; this is not entirely accurate. Hindu philosophers view all language to be just as representative of the eternal as any image or object. Representing attributes of the divine symbolically is acceptable, although they believe that ultimately Brahman is beyond any worldly representation. INCARNATION. The belief that God assumed human nature. Classical, Chalcedonian Christianity holds that Jesus Christ is fully human and fully God. Some Christians believe this involved the second person of the trinity undergoing a self-limitation (Greek, kenosis), whereby God put aside omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence to assume a human life of limited power and vulnerability, limited knowledge, and location. Some theologians do not posit a limitation of these properties: they hold instead that while the second person of the trinity retained all divine properties, the second person of the trinity focused its life as a created mind that became the person of Jesus Christ, the child born in Palestine. On this view, sometimes called the two minds theory, Jesus Christ is the embodied mind of God, a mind that exists within the broader divine mind of God. T. V. Morris and Richard Swinburne defend versions of this second account. ISLAM. The second largest world religion, with over 1.5 billion followers. Islam asserts shared roots with Judaism and Christianity, acknowledging a common, Abrahamic past. The Qur’an (from Qu’ra for “to recite” or “to read”) was, according to tradition, received by the Prophet Muhammad from the Angel Gabriel as the literal speech and revelation of God (in Arabic, Allah). In addition to the Qur’an, Islamic teaching was forged by the sayings (hadith) of the Prophet Muhammad (570–632). Islam proclaims a radical monotheism that explicitly repudiated both the polytheism of pagan Arabia and the Christian understanding of the incarnation and the trinity. Central to Islam is God’s unity, transcendence, and sovereignty, God’s providential control of the cosmos, the importance for humans to live justly and compassionately and to follow set ritual practices of worship. “Islam” in Arabic means submission, and a follower of Islam is therefore called a Muslim, “one who submits” to God. The Five Pillars of Islam are (1) witnessing that “There is no god but God and Muhammad is his messenger,” (2) praying five times a day while facing Mecca, (3) alms-giving, (4) fasting during Ramadan (the ninth month of the Muslim calendar), and (5) making a pilgrimage to Mecca. The two largest branches of Islam are Sunni and Shi’a; their differences began to develop early in the history of Islam over a disagreement about who would succeed the Prophet Muhammad in the leadership of the community. Sunnis comprise a vast majority of Muslims. Shi’ites put greater stress on the continuing revelation of God beyond the Qur’an as revealed in the authoritative teachings of the imams (holy successors who inherit Muhammad’s “spiritual abilities”), the mujtahidun (“doctors of the law”), and other agents. Like Christianity, Islam has proclaimed that a loving, merciful, and just God will not annihilate an individual at death, but provide either heaven or hell. JUDAISM. In Judaism, God’s principal manifestation is held to have been in leading the people of Israel out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land (Canaan) as recounted in the book of Exodus. This “saving event” is commemorated perennially in the yearly observation of Passover. The tradition places enormous value on community life, which is depicted in the Hebrew Bible as a covenant between God and the people of Israel. The more traditional representatives of Judaism, especially the Orthodox, adopt a strict reading of what they take to be the historic meaning of the Hebrew scripture as secured in the early stages of its formation. Other groups, such as the Conservative and Reformed, treat scripture as authoritative but do not depend on a specific, historically-defined interpretation of that scripture. Although there is presently some lively disagreement about the extent to which Judaism affirms an afterlife of individuals, historically Judaism has included an affirmation of an afterlife. See also ABRAHAMIC FAITHS. KARMA. Sanskrit for “action.” A belief in Hinduism, Buddhism, and other Indian religions in which morally good or evil actions come back to the actor; a good action comes back to the actor in benefits and an evil action comes back to the actor in punishments. In Hinduism there are three types of karma: acts in a previous life manifest in this life, acts in this life manifest in this life, and acts in this life manifest in a future life. A good action reaps good karma while evil action reaps bad karma. For example, if I donate a lot of my money to charities, in the next life I may become a queen, but if I cheat on an exam, I may be fired from a job later in this life. A popular expression summarizing karma is “what goes around comes around.” The religions that have a divine figure believe that that figure deals out the karma while non-theistic religions believe that karma is simply cause and effect and does not need any sort of judge. LIBERAL THEOLOGY. Also known as “modern theology”, the primary assumption of liberal theology is that the content or meaning of religious convictions are separate from the way those convictions are expressed or formulated. In this way, concern for—and the use of—philosophical, cultural, and social discourse is a particular staple of liberal theology. Friedrich Schleiermacher is often considered “the father of modern theology”. MAGIC. Christian Old and New Testament sources associate magic with sorcery and devilish arts, but the Renaissance promoted a form of white magic involving alchemy and the development of virtue through enchantment. See also WICCA. MAIMONIDES (1135–1204). Also known as Moses ben Maimon, Rabbi Moses, and the Rambam (from the initials of “Rabbi Moses ben Maimon”). Maimonides was the most important Jewish philosopher of the Middle Ages and one of the most important Jewish thinkers of all time. He was born in Cordoba, Spain, and spent much of his life fleeing religious persecution. His family fled to Fez in 1148, then to Egypt in 1165. He was a court physician in Cairo until his death. He wrote a number of works in Hebrew and Arabic. His major work, the Guide of the Perplexed, is an important work of apophatic theology and one of the most important philosophical works of Judaism. In the Guide, Maimonides attempted a rational reconciliation of philosophy and revealed religion. His Guide was of interest not just to Jews but also to Christians and Muslims. Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas were both influenced by Maimonides’ attempt to synthesize Jewish monotheism and Aristotelian metaphysics. Maimonides stresses the importance of law and proper conduct of life. His Mishneh Torah was to be an allencompassing commentary to supplement the Torah. In it, he attempts to show that there is nothing in the Torah that does not serve a rational purpose. Maimonides took the point of the Jewish law to be the betterment of the body and of the soul. Every action prescribed in the Torah is therefore beneficial for both the body and for the soul. His principal works are: Treatise on the Art of Logic, Commentary on the Mishnah (1168), The Guide of the Perplexed (c. 1190), Treatise on Resurrection (1191), and Letter on Astrology (1195). See also APOPHATIC THEOLOGY. MEDITATION. A contemplative state of mind that has a different but sometimes closely related role in different religions. So, in theistic religions, there is a common practice of persons contemplating scripture or icons or a holy teaching in the course of the practitioner opening her mind to the presence of God. In Buddhism, meditation often takes a different course in which the goal of meditation may be to see through the diaphanous, spurious nature of ego-driven desire and to see the unreality of the ostensible substantial self. MONOTHEISM. The belief that there is only one God. See also CHRISTIANITY; ISLAM; and JUDAISM. MYSTICISM. From the Greek mystes, meaning, “one initiated into the mysteries.” Broadly speaking, a domain of experience of and reflection on the sacred that involves affective and cognitive states that are not empirical, or are not only empirical. While the term is sometimes used disparagingly, it has a stable usage as a legitimate, even rigorous study of religiously significant states of consciousness as demonstrated by, for example, Evelyn Underhill’s classic study Mysticism (1911). |
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