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МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ РЯЗАНСКАЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННАЯ РАДИОТЕХНИЧЕСКАЯ АКАДЕМИЯ РЕФЕРИРОВАНИЕ НАУЧНО-ТЕХНИЧЕСКОГО ТЕКСТА Методические указания (Английский язык) УДК: Реферирование научно-технического текста: Методические указания (Английский язык) Рязан. гос. радиотехн. акад.; Сост. Э.П.Ромашковцева, Л.П.Попова, Рязань, 2003, 12 с. При отборе материала учитывались информативный и познавательный характер текстов, их стиль, терминологическая насыщенность, а также соответствие специальностям групп студентов, обучающихся на 2-м курсе. Предназначены для студентов 2-го курса всех факультетов и включают тексты на английском языке и лексические упражнения для обучения написанию рефератов на русском языке в соответствии с требованиями экзаменационной программы. Реферат, лексические упражнения, иллюстративный материал Печатается по решению методического совета Рязанской государственной радиотехнической академии. Рецензент: кафедра иностранных языков РГРТА (зав. кафедрой, доц., канд. филол. наук Н.П.Столбова) Реферирование научно-технического текста Составители: Р о м а ш к о в ц е в а Эмма Павловна П о п о в а Лидия Петровна Редактор Р.К.Мангутова Подписано в печать Формат бумаги 60х84 1/16. Бумага газетная. Печать трафаретная. Усл. печ. л. 0.75. Уч.-изд.л. 0.75. Тираж 150 экз. Заказ Рязанская государственная радиотехническая академия. 3900052 Рязань, ул. Гагарина, 59/1. Редакционно-издательский центр РГРТА. Рязань 2003 Реферат - это краткое изложение содержания статьи с его критической оценкой. Реферирование включает в себя некоторые сведения, касающиеся автора статьи, времени ее написаня, указания на главную идею статьи, а также изложение нашего отношения к статье и описываемым в ней мыслям, утверждениям. Когда мы начинаем работу по реферированию, то, прочитав текст, определяем для себя: 1) основной смысл статьи; 2) основные структурные составляющие статьи (абзацы); 3) основной смысл каждого абзаца; 4) ключевые слова, которые несут основную смысловую нагрузку во всем тексте и в каждом из абзацев. В результате этой работы получается некий смысловой каркас, построенный на основе ключевых слов и выражений. Его нужно записать и запомнить. Следующим этапом работы является "редактирование" смыслового каркаса: мы устанавливаем те или иные связи между ключевыми мыслями каждого абзаца; выстраиваем сквозную логику всего реферата. И, наконец, мы включаем в реферат изложение нашего отношения к мыслям и утверждениям, которые содержатся в статье. I. Схема составления реферата 1. Название статьи, журнала или монографии, откуда взята статья, место и год издания, имя автора. Например: Название статьи "Компьютеры 3-го поколения". Автор статьи ... Статья взята из журнала "Компьютеры", № 9, 1991 г., который издается в Лондоне и выходит 2 раза в месяц. 2. Тематическая направленность статьи. Например: 1) "Как понятно из названия, в статье рассматривается ..." 2) "Как указано в названии, автор представляет (проводит исследование) ..." 3. Основная идея статьи. Например: - 2 - 1) "Статья содержит самую современную информацию по такой-то проблеме." 2) "В статье исследуются проблемы ..." 3) "В статье суммируются принципы ..." 4. Доказательства, приведенные автором. Например: 1) "Автор подтверждает свои мысли конкретными примерами." 2) "Автор подробно описывает приведенный метод." 5. Иллюстративный материал. Например: 1) "Рисунок 3 показывает ..." 2) "Полученные данные приведены в таблице ..." 3) "Как показано на рис. 1, ..." 4) "Измерения, приведенные на рис. 4, иллюстрируют ..." 6. Мнение реферирующего. Например: Положительное. 1) "Читателю эта статья будет важна для ..." 2) "Описанный метод имеет практический интерес для ..." Отрицательное. 1) "Применимость полученных результатов кажется сомнительной ввиду ..." 2) "Мы считаем, что в статье содержится мало подробностей о ..." 7. Общие итоги. Основные выводы. Например: 1) "В статье приводится обзор проблемы ..." 2) "Результаты исследований, приведенные в статье, хорошо согласуются с ранее полученными данными." II. Прочтите предложенный текст и найдите в нем предложения, подтверждающие его основную мысль. LONG-RANGE COMMUNICATIONS 1. The problem to be solved is that of a noiseless generator. If one disconnects the antenna of the operating radio receiver, one can hear steady background noise. This is produced by fluctuations — microscopic leaps of the current. They are hardly discernible at the receiver input, but having passed through the stages of amplification, they increase hundreds of thousand of times. They are called "noises" because of the acoustic effect - 3 - they produce. 2. The noise in the generator results from a multitude of oscillations with very similar but differing frequencies. А tremendous number of sine waves overlap on the screen of an oscillograph. As a result of their blending we observe the only "resultant" wave. This, however is an illusion which is exposed by specific instruments. As for the danger of this illusion you may judge for yourself: under the influence of the noise the frequency of oscillations begins to change chaotically. 3. The leaps of frequency in the transistorized quartz generators are measured in millionths of one per cent. This is not much when dealing with generators used in conventional broadcasting or television transmitters. It is a lot when dealing with systems designed for cosmic radio communication. Thus the transmission band of the receivers used in the Venus probe was 5 cps., Venus being at the time 56 million kilometres from the Earth. For comparison's sake it should be noted that the transmission band of conventional receivers exceeds 10,000 cps. 4. The scientists at an Institute have suggested a new design of the so-called transistorized quartz generator with pulse induction of oscillations in which the frequency oscillations are "packed" within 100 millionth of a per cent. They have also developed instruments wich record instantaneous frequency variations with an accuracy of up to one billionth of a per cent. III. Определите тематическую направленность предложенного текста. CONVERTER OF NUCLEAR ENERGY The development of a cell which can convert nuclear energy directly into electricity has been announced by General Motors. It is called a liquid metal cell, and it builds up energy by collecting the electrical charges given off by the reaction of one liquid metal with another—in contrast with conventional storage batteries whose energy is produced by the action of acid upon the meta1. The cell is capable of producing a larger proportion of its full theoretical power than normal storage batteries owing to the greater conductivity of its molten salt electrolyte and the quicker reaction rates of the metals with the salts. A liquid metal cell in the form of a one-foot cube can produce 11 kilowatts compared with the 1 ½ kilowatts obtainable from storage batteries of the same dimensions. In converting nuclear energy to electricity, the cell would form part of a - 4 - regenerative cycle which could work for long periods using the heat of a nuclear reactor. The heat of the reactor separates the metals since their melting points differ appreciably. When the metals recombine in the cell, a reaction occurs producing an electric current. While heating is continued the system will produce electricity; a cell of this type was run continuously for 60 hours. Задание: 1 - прочтите текст; 2 - дайте краткую характеристику текста, пользуясь выражениями: "The text deals with ..."; "The text is devoted to ..." IV. Переведите на русский язык следующие заголовки текстов. 1 - Motion-Control Chip Sets. 2 - Industry's First Integrated Wavelet Video Code Sets. 3 - A Host-Based Software Driver. 4 - Analogue - to - Digital Converter Architecture. 5 - Multiple-Launch Rocket System. 6 - An Efficient State-Sequential Very Large Interation Architecture. 7 - Power Consumption Minimization. V. Найдите в данном тексте предложения, соответствующие его заголовку. BASIS OF TELEVISION TRANSMISSION The problem of the transmission of a series of pictures suitable for giving a moving picture, each picture being subdivided into a finite number of picture elements, does not have an unique solution. Of the several possible methods, that involving the process of scanning has been chosen as the most practical. This process consists of moving an exploring element or spot over the image to be transmitted in a periodically repeated path covering the entire image area. The exploring element is so constructed that it generates a signal giving information as to the brightness (either instantaneous or averaged over a time equal to or less than the time of persistence of vision) of the picture element on which the exploring element momentarily rests. This signal is transmitted over the communication channel to a picture-reproducing spot whose brightness is controlled by the information supplied by the signal. The reproducing spot moves over the viewing screen in a path similar to, and in synchronism with, that of the exploring element. Thus, the reproducing spot reconstructs at the viewing screen, both in magnitude and  Fig. 22. Scanning raster - 5 - position, the brightness distribution on the image area. The paths of the moving spots covering the image area and the viewing screen need not be continuous. In fact, the form of scanning which has been universally accepted as most satisfactory for television is one in which the spots move in a series of straight parallel lines covering the picture area as shown in Fig. 22. There is, of course, a theoretical infinity of paths which might be chosen to cover the picture area, for example, radical scanning, spiral scanning, sinusoidal scanning, etc., to name a few. These other forms of scanning find application in radar practice, oscillography, and other special fields, but in what follows, unless otherwise stated, straight-line scanning will be assumed. VI. Дайте краткое описание схемы SIMPLE RESONANT CIRCUITS Series resonance. A circuit consisting of a resistance, inductance and capacity connected in series with a voltage applied as shown in Fig. 3 is termed a series resonant circuit. When the circuit resistance is low, as is normally the case, the current depends upon the frequency of the applied voltage. The current is a maximum and in phase with the applied voltage at the frequency, termed the resonant frequency, at which the inductive reactance and capacitive reactances are equal. At lower frequencies the current falls off and leads, while at higher frequencies it drops and lags. Fig. 3. A series resonant circuit - 6 - The shape of the series resonance curve of current is determined by the ratio of the inductive reactance wL to the circuit resistance R, i. e., upon wL/R. This ratio is customarily represented by the symbol Q, and is called the circuit Q. Its numerical value commonly approximates the Q of the coil used in the resonant circuit because most of the loss in resonant circuits is usually in the coil, but will always be, at least slightly less than the coil Q because of the condenser losses. Increasing the circuit resistance reduces the response in the vicinity of resonance, although producing virtually no effect at frequencies differing appreciably from the resonant frequency. The resistance and reactance components of the impedance of the series circuit vary with frequency. In the small frequency range represented by the region around resonance, the circuit resistance is substantially constant. VII. Выразите cвое мнение о прочитанной статье (тексте), положительное или отрицательное. AGE OF THINKING MACHINES Which fields of modern science and technology might prove decisive for the future development of new forms of movement of matter? One of them is the electronic computer — the most remarkable achievement of the twentieth century, which marked the emergence of man into the era of the automation of mental work. Firstly, an increase in the volume of the machine-memory. The memory system of the future machines will store the entire wealth of knowledge accumulated by man in all the sciences in culture and in every aspect of human life. The potential in this field is endless. Secondly, micro-miniaturization. This is associated with the progress of radioelectronics. In the designing of electronic computers we have passed from radio-valves to transistors, which are smaller in size, and recently to solid circuits, where various portions of a tiny piece of synthetic crystal are imparted the necessary electrophysical properties by appropriate treatment. Micro-miniaturization makes it possible to construct extremely complex computers of small size and weight, but involving a tremendous number of elements. The man-machine relationship is most important, too. In the comparatively near future, a global system of machines, a single automated system of communication, and a single system of scientific, technical and other data supply will be developed. All these systems will be correlated, will have intricate structures and specific properties. The development of such systems and of their theory is an essential trend of modern thought. - 7 - Finally, the electronic machines will effect radically the work of scientists. The machine will by itself accumulate, process and supply new data. By this method some new types of codes have been found. Their discovery necessitated the testing and comparisons of approximately one thousand million operations. Thanks to the high rate of processing, the computers found the new codes independently, while man only fed the demands and the algorithms, i.e. set the search pattern. VIII. Прочтите следующую статью и ознакомьтесь с рефератом к ней. SINGLE-CHIP DIGITAL STEREO SUBSYSTEM AD1859 simplifies audio playback, Improves fidelity, Easily handles a wide range of sample rates by Pete Predella The AD1859* offers the industry's most functionally complete 16/18-bit stereo digital audio playback subsystem on a single chip. It converts serial digital input data to filtered, buffered, low-distortion, gain-controlled stereo analog output. Its asynchronous master clock, a digital phase-locked loop (DPLL), allows it tо accept data from a variety of sources, with clock rates from 28 kHz to 52 kHz (using an external 27-MHz crystal), rejecting sample-clock jitter and greatly simplifying interfacing. It is ideal for many applications, including digital cable TV and direct broadcast satellite set-top decoder boxes, video CD players, CD-I players, high-definition televisions, digital audio broadcast receivers, digital audio workstations, multimedia computers, and all forms of CD and digital tape players. The monolithic AD1859 comprises a variable-rate oversampling digital interpolation filter, an innovative multibit sigma-delta (S-A) modulator with dither, a jitter-tolerant digital-to-analog converter (DAC), switched-capacitor and continuous- time analog filters, and analog output drive circuitry—as well as an on-chip dc voltage reference—housed in a 28-lead SOIC orSSOP package. The on-chip volume controls (a system cost saving)include a stereo attenuator and mute, programmed entirely through an SPIt-compatible serial control port. A typical application where the AD1859 offers especial advantages, MPEG audio, calls out a requirement for three different sample rates: 32-, - 8 - 44.1-, and 48 kHz. With a typical sigma-delta audio DAC, the designer would have to provide an external clock circuit to synthesize the "master clock" associated with each of these three sample frequencies. With the AD1859—the first audio DAC to have an asynchronous master clock—this task is simplified. All that is needed is a 27-MHz clock (furnished externally or generated on-chip using an external 27-MHz crystal), the AD1859's phase-locked loop automatically adapts to different incoming sample rates—a major system cost saving. The DPLL will lock to any new sample rate (applied to the Left-Right clock pin) within 100 to 200 ms, jitter components more than 15 Hz above and below the sample frequency are rejected at 6 dB per octave (e.g., jitter at 150 Hz above or below the sample rate is reduced by 20 dB). Another feature uniquely available with the AD1859 is an innovative multibit sigma-delta modulator (see sidebar), that helps to reject: clock jitter—a system audibility advantage—and reduces out-of-band energy, a system cost saving. Interface to the AD1859 is simple—via a flexible serial data input port that allows for glueless interconnection to a variety of ADCs, DSPs, AES/EBU receivers, and sample-rate converters. The versatile serial data input port can be configured for left-justified, S-justified, right-justified, and DSP serial port compatible modes. The chip accepts 16 or 18-bit audio data in MSB-first, twos-complement format. The AD1859 supports continuously variable sample rates and with essentially linear (to within ±0.1%) phase response. De-emphasis is optionally available at the analog output stage, achieving improved, sample-rate invariant, noise reduction with the addition of just a few external components. A power-down mode (48 mW vs. 330 mW) minimizes power consumption when the device is inactive. The entire stereo digital audio playback subsystem operates from a single +5-V supply over the temperature range -40°C to +105°C; it is packaged in 28-pin SOIC and SSOP. The AD1859 was designed in Wilmington, MA, by Bob Adams, Tom Kwan, and Bob Liberty of our Computer Products Division. *Technical data is available at our Web site, http://www.analog.com fSPI is a registered trademark of Motorola, Inc. Реферат английской статьи, выполненный студентом гр. № ... Название статьи "Цифровая стереоподсистема, выполненная на одном чипе". - 9 - Статья взята из журнала "Analog Dialogue" № 30 за 1996 год. Данный журнал издается в Нью - Йорке 2 раза в месяц. Тематическая направленность статьи. Как понятно из названия, автор рассматривает новую цифровую стереоподсистему. Основная идея статьи: описание стереоподсистемы AD1859, ее рабочие характеристики, применение, преимущества. В статье подробно исследуется работа AD1859. Автор обращает внимание на такие преимущества подсистемы, как ее способность принимать информацию от разнообразных источников в диапазоне от 28 до 52 кГц, а также способность превращать цифровую входную информацию в аналоговый стереовыход при низких искажениях. Автор приводит примеры разнообразных применений AD1859, как то: кабельное TV, спутниковые расшифровывающие устройства, видео-CD проигрыватели, мультимедийные компьютеры. Автор подробно рассматривает основные части подсистемы AD1859 и описывает ее рабочие характеристики. Эта статья будет полезна всем читателям, которые интересуются усовершенствованием точности воспроизведения звука при работе с широким диапазоном частоты посылки импульсов. KEYS TO THE AD1859'S PERFORMANCE The AD1859 offers superb fidelity and low-level linearity, greatly reduces circuit complexity, can be interfaced easily to DSPs (digital signal processors) and ADCs (analog-to-digital converters), and cuts the power consumption and cost of digital audio playback systems. It has two key differentiating features from conventional devices. First is its unique DPLL (digital phase-locked loop) clock manager. This is an asynchronous sample-rate manager that automatically adjusts to incoming sample frequencies and allows the AD1859 to be clocked by a different frequency from its own master clock. It is based on patented asynchronous sample-rate conversion technology developed at Analog Devices (Analog Dialogue 28-1, 1994, pp. 9-11). Until now, no other audio DAC has had this capability. Other audio DACs (digital-to-analog converters) require a well-tuned, high-frequency master clock that runs at 256 or 384 times the intended audio sample rate. The generation and management of this high frequency synchronous clock is burdensome to the board-level designer. An external asynchronous clock oscillator may be used to furnish the AD1859's master clock; however, the AD1859 includes an on-chip - 10 - oscillator, so the designer need only provide an inexpensive quartz crystal or ceramic resonator as the external time base. The AD1859's on-board DPLL will lock to any incoming sample rate between 1/512 and 1/1024 of its master clock frequency in about 100 ms. Jitter on the crystal time base or MCLK input is rejected (by virtue of an on-chip switched-capacitor filter), as well as jitter on the incoming LRCLK input—to a level unprecedented in audio DACs. The second differentiating feature of the AD1859 is its patented multibit sigma-delta modulator, which results in dramatically less out-of-band noise energy than competitive ICs. Lower out-of-band noise energy reduces the need for post-DAC filtering, so that all the necessary post-DAC filtering (except for optional analog de- emphasis) is integrated on chip. Another attribute of the multibit - modulator is its high immunity to digital substrate noise, further improving audio signal integrity. What is a multibit sigma-delta modulator? In an elementary approach, typical sigma-delta modulators have two levels of quantization, and DACs must average pulsewidth-modulated full-scale square waves, but in the case of the AD1859, 17 levels of quantization are used, and the input to the averaging filter can be thought of as the much easier task of smoothing the l/16th-full-scale elements of a 17-level staircase. The additional quantization levels and higher oversampling ratio means that the output spectrum contains dramatically lower levels of out-of-band noise energy; permitting a much simpler post-DAC reconstruction filter. Its reduced transition-band steepness and attenuation requirements result in lower phase distortion and improved fidelity. Is there a downside? The problem that conventionally limits the performance of multibit - converters is the nonlinearity of the passive circuit elements used to sum the quantization levels. The designers have invented a revolutionary architecture that overcomes the problem. Other interesting features of the chip include the use of a dither with a triangular probability distribution function to further reduce quantization noise; and on-chip low-pass filtering consisting of a 2nd-order switched-capacitor filter, followed by a first-order analog continuous-time filter. In addition to filtering out noise, it reduces the effects of any. residual master-clock jitter. 'See "A stereo multi-bit - DAC with asynchronous master-clock interface", by Tom Kwan, Bob Adams, and Bob Liberty, 7996 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference Record. - 11 - IX. 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X. Find the information in the article to complete the notes which follow the article. THE SEARCH FOR THE THINKING MACHINE Computers can already play chess, produce new proofs for mathematical problems, read and translate languages. But no machine, however complex, has yet come close to mimicking the full range of human thought. Nobody has yet built a machine that can learn to speak a language. Yet this is something that children master in their first few years. It took a good deal of effort at Edinburgh University in the 1970s to produce a computer that could 'recognise' simple items like a cup or a saucer, another thing that human beings regard as trivially easy. - 12 - Scientists who work in the field believe that one day the workings of the human brain will be completely understood and then it will be duplicated electronically. One of the difficulties is that computers and brains are organised differently. The brain is a network of cells called neurons. It contains between ten and one hundred billion neurons, each of which is connected to about ten thousand others, and all of which function at the same time. Computers, by contrast, contain millions of individual logic circuits, each linked to only one other circuit, and each working one after the other. The information flowing through the computer goes along a single path rather than being distributed widely, as in the brain. Computer circuits work much more quickly than the neurons, and at some tasks the computer is better - long complex mathematical calculations, for example. Yet the brain with its relatively sluggish neurons is far better at recognising patterns and at learning - a process which may have something to do with increasing the density of connections between the neurons as learning takes place. Today an increasing number of scientists in Japan, the USA and Europe are working with computers that attempt to copy the architecture of the brain. These computers areknown as neural networks. The basic elements are electronic circuits, just like those in ordinary computers, but they are wired up differently with many connections between them like those between the neurons in the brain. The computers are not programmed in the normal way by feeding in a set of instructions. They undergo a learning process in which information is fed in, together with examples of the conclusions the computer shoul reach, or feedback about how well it is doing. The process is similar to teaching a child. Professor Igor Aleksander of Imperial College, London, devised a neural network called Wisard in 1981 which could recognise a human smile - one of the very first things a baby learns. It was taught by being shown a series of pictures, some smiling, some not. From this it was able to look at faces it had not been shown before and display on screen or printer whether they were smiling. At John Hopkins University at Baltimore, in the 1980s, Dr Terence Sejnowski produced a neural network that could pronounce correctly words that were typed into a keyboard. The network learned, just as a child does, its efforts corrected until it got them right. - 13 - The Japanese broad casting network, NHK, has a neural network that can recognise Japanese characters with 95 per cent accuracy, regardless of size, position and changes in scale. Neural networks are still at a very early stage of development. But, if ever a computer is to be truly intelligent, most scientists believe this is how to achieve it. Complete the following notes. Write briefly, in note form. a) Computers can do many difficult things e.g. 1________________________ 2________________________ 3________________________ b) It can't do other things which people find easy e.g. 1 ________________________ 2 ________________________ c) Differences between the organisation of the human brain and computers: Human Brain Computers 1 ___________________________ ______________________ 2 ___________________________ ______________________ 3 ___________________________ ______________________ d) Computers are better than brains at some things e.g 1 ____________________________ e) Neural networks differ from ordinary computers in that: 1 ____________________________ 2 ____________________________ f) Write an essay |
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