Учебно-методический комплекс по дисциплине «английский язык»
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Тексты для специальности “Менеджмент организации”Вариант 1ON MANAGEMENT AND MANAGERS Management, by definition, is a function of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing and controlling. Any managerial system, at any managerial level, is characterized in terms of these functions. Management is revealed in a variety of specific activities. Marketing management refers to a broad concept covering organization of production and sales of products, which is based on consumer requirements research. All companies must look beyond present situation and develop a long – term strategy to meet changing conditions in their industry. Marketing management, therefore, consists of evaluating market opportunities, selecting markets, developing market strategies, planning marketing tactics and controlling marketing results. Strategic planning includes defining the company’s long – term as well as specific objectives, such as sales volume, market share, profitability and innovation, and deciding on financial, material and other resources necessary to achieve these objectives. In problems of market selection and product planning one of the key concepts is that of the PRODUCT LIFE CIRCLE. The fact that products pass through various stages between life and death (introduction – growth – maturity – decline) is hard to deny. Equally accepted is the understanding that a company should have a mix of products with representation in each of these stages. Companies can make far more effective marketing decisions if they take time to find out where each of their products stands in its life cycle. However, the concept of the product life cycle seems frequently forgotten in marketing planning, which leads to wrong decision – making. This may well be seen in the following story: A supplier of some light industrial equipment felt that the decline in the sales of his major product was due to the fact that it was not receiving the sales support it deserved. In order to give extra sales support to this problem case a special advertising campaign was run. This required cutting into marketing budget of several products, which were still in their “young” growth phase. In fact, the major product has long since passed the zenith of its potential sales, and no amount of additional sales support could have extended its growth. This became quite clear in the end-of-year sales, which showed no improvement. The promising products, however, went into gradual sales decline. In short, management has failed to consider each product’s position in its life cycle. A number of different terms are used for “manager”, including “director”, “administrator ” and “president”. The term “manage” is used more frequently in profit – making organizations, while the others are used more widely in government and non-profit organizations such as universities, hospitals and social work agencies. What, then, is a manager? When used collectively the term “management” refers to those people who are responsible for making and carrying out decisions within the system. An individual manager is a person who directly supervises people in an organization. Some basic characteristics seem to apply to managers in all types of organizations: they include hard work on a variety of activities, preference for active tasks, direct personal relationships. Almost everything a manager does involve decisions. The reason for making a decision is that a problem exists. In decision – making there is always some uncertainty and risk. Managing is a hard job. There is a lot to be done and relatively little time to do it. The engineer can finish a design on a particular day; and the lawyer can win or lose a case at a certain time. But the manager’s job is like “OLD MAN RIVER”* – it just keeps going. “OLD MAN RIVER” – the name of a song Вариант 2UNEMPLOYMENT STATISTICS Unemployment can be divided into three basic types: frictional, structural and cyclical. Frictional unemployment as short – term unemployment that results from such factors as individuals voluntary switching jobs, fired employees seeking reemployment, employees seeking their first job and the seasonal pattern of employment in such industries as construction and recreation. Structural unemployment refers to long – term unemployment caused by changes in consumer demand and changes in technology. These types of changes cause some workers to become unemployed for long periods of time or permanently. Because of changes in the nature of the economy, the talents of some workers become obsolete. Structural unemployment is not caused by general business fluctuations, nor does it involve the normal movement of workers from one ob to another. Cyclical unemployment refers to unemployment caused by business fluctuations. This situation occurs when the economy is in recession or depression and aggregate demand is insufficient to maintain full employment. When the overall level of business activity decreases, cyclical unemployment increases. Conversely, when overall business activity picks up, cyclical unemployment drops. A prominent economist, Arthur Okun, quantified the relationship between unemployment and GDP. This relationship, called Okun’s law, indicates that the rate of unemployment declines by one percentage point for every two-percentage points of increase in the rate of economic growth. Full employment does not mean zero unemployment. Frictional and structural unemployment are unavoidable, thus the definition of full employment allows for less than 100% employment. One way to explain full employment is to say that it is achieved when cyclical unemployment is zero. But any definition of full employment is going to change as the demographics of the labor force change, institutional factors change, and the economy evolves. Employment report. The employment report is the single most important data series released by the government to both the bond and stock markets because it is both timely and a comprehensive measure of economic activity. Included in the report is the unemployment rate, which is determined by the Bureau of Labor Statistics by conducting a nationwide random survey of 60,000 households per month. The unemployment report is released on the first Friday of the month at http://stats.bls.gov. Although the unemployment rate is the most widely reported statistics, this rate is a lagging indicator of the state of the economy. Instead, the market focuses upon the change in nonfarm payrolls, hours worked, and hourly pay. These numbers help predict whether the economy is strengthening, and if labor costs are accelerating or moderating. The payroll survey collects data on jobs, hourly wages and the number of hours in the workweek from about 400,000 companies covering nearly 50 industries. The total change in payroll reflects economic activity. A big jump means companies are hiring in response to rising sales. A drop implies that companies are reducing their labor force in response to weakening sales. In the recent past the economic consensus was that at unemployment levels of less than about 6%, inflation was bound to accelerate. Yet joblessness had been 5% or less for 32 straight months by the end of 1999, and inflation had declined steadily through the 1990s, hitting a 12 – year low in 1998. the Fed has expressed its concern about tight labor markets by raising interest rates three times in 1999 and again in February, March and May of 2000. although advances in information technology and the expanded use of the Internet may continue to stimulate efficiencies and lower costs, productivity growth must continue to increase rapidly to prevent unit labor costs from accelerating and heightening fears of inflation. |
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