Учебно-методический комплекс дисциплины Федеральное агентство по образованию Государственное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования
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Position of Adverbial Modifiers An adverbial modifier hardly ever separates the direct object from the predicate. It stands either before the predicate or after the direct object. e.g. Helen heard me patiently to the end. We could also very well say: «Helen patiently heard me to the end,» but no other position of the adverbial modifier is possible here, unless it is meant to be emphatic; in this case it is placed at the beginning of the sentence. However, an adverbial modifier separates the direct object from its verb when the object has an attribute. 1. An adverbial modifier of time is generally placed either at the begin ning or at the end of the sentence. Adverbial modifiers expressed by the adverbs now and then can be placed in nearly any position. e.g. On Sunday I wake up at 10 a.m. 1 wake up at 10 a.m. on Sunday 2. An adverbial modifier of place generally stands either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. e.g. They have a bowl of fruit on their cupboard. On their cupboard they have a bowl of fruit. However, an adverbial modifier of place sometimes comes between the predicate and the preposit ional object. Adverbial modifiers of place generally precede those of time and purpose: e.g. I’m going to the country tomorrow. 3. The place of the adverbial modifier of frequency is more fixed than that of other adverbial modifiers which enjoy a certain freedom of position. As a rule they precede the predicate verb in a simple tense form but rbllow the verb to be and all the modal verbs. In a compound tense form they follow the first auxiliary, when they are emphasized they stand before the verb to be. However, sometimes and generally may be placed either before or after the verb. In interrogative sentences adverbial modifiers of frequency come im-medic tely after the subject. e.g. She is always grumbling. Did you ever see this picture before? Adverbial modifiers of frequency sometimes occupy the first place. This position generally does not cause inversion. 4. The most frequent position of an adverbial modifier of manner is after the predicate if the verb is intransitive, and after the direct object if the verb is transitive. e.g. She shut the door with a bang. «You shouldn’t have done this for me,» she said shyly. An adverbial modifier of manner generally stands between the predicate-verb and the prepositional indirect object though it is also found after the object. Very often, however, an adverbial modifier of manner expressed by an adverb stands immediately before the predicate. In compound tense forms an adverbial modifier of manner expressed by an adverb generally comes after the last auxiliary. 5. Adverbial modifiers of degree always precede the predicate; if the verb is in a compound tense-form they follow the first auxiliary. e.g. I entirely agree with you. He has quite forgotten about the concert. An adverbial modifier of degree expressed by the adverb enough generally follows the adjective it modifies, but may follow or precede a noun. When enough modifies a noun it may either follow or precede it. e.g. I have time enough to do it. I have enough time to do it. THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE The composite sentence is built up by two or more clauses (predicative lines). Clauses in a composite sentence may be joined by means of coordination or subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence. Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank. Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them dependent upon the other. The Compound Sentence The compound sentence is based on coordination. By coordination the clauses in the compound sentence are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank. In a compound sentence the clauses are connected: a) asyndetically – without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb. e.g. He came, he saw, he won. He laid the baby gently on the doorstep, took a letter out of his cloak, tucked it inside the blankets, walked away. b) syndetically - by means of conjunctions {and, or, else, but, while, for, so, nor, not only...but...(also/as well/too)) or conjunctive adverbs (more over, however, still, therefore, otherwise, yet, nevertheless, accordingly, consequently, hence). e.g. A shadow of a grin showed itself on the man’s lips, however he remained silent. There was nothing offensive in her words, but he put his own construction on her change of tone. Usually the following types of coordination connection are singled out. They are four: copulative, adversative, disjunctive, causative-consecutive. Copulative coordination expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither...nor, not only...but (also), as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, besides. Copulative coordination implies the information conveyed by coordinate clauses is in some way similar. e.g. The front door to the house opened, and a man and a woman stepped out on the wooden porch. Adversative coordination expressed by the conjunctions but, while, whereas, and the conjunctive adverbs yet, nevertheless, still, however, and the conjunctive particle only. These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasting in meanirg. e.g. The story was amusing, but nobody laughed. Disjunctive coordination implies a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive conjunctions are or, either...or, the conjunctive adverbs else (or else), otherwise. e.g. Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you. Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other a consequence. The following conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs are used: for, so; accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore. e.g. There was something amiss with Mr. Lightwood, for he was strangely grave and looked ill. The Complex Sentence A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways: 1. Syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives. There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction only serves as a formal element connecting separate clauses, whereas a connective serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces. e.g. More and more, she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul. (CONJUNCTION) All that he had sought for and achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning. (CONNECTIVE) 2. Asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or connective. e.g. I wish you had come earlier. A subordinate clause may follow, precede, or interrupt the principal clause. e.g. His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel. As the family had no visitors that day, its four members dined alone together. A complex sentence may contain two or more homogeneous clauses coordinated with each other. e.g. They were all obstinately of opinion that the poor girl had stolen the moonstone, and that she had destroyed herself in terror of being found out. A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the principal clause or to another subordinate clause. Accordingly, we distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second, third, etc. degree of subordination. e.g. I don’t mind making the admission... that there are certain forms of so-called humor, or, at least, fun, which I am quite unable to appreciate. According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, attributive, object, and adverbial clauses. Subject Clauses Subject clauses perform the function of the subject to the predicate of the principal clause. Attention should be paid to the peculiar structure of the principal clause, which in this case has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such. e.g. What I want to do is to save us both. If a subject clause follows the principal clause the so-called introductory it is used in the princip»al clause. e.g. It was always possible that they might encounter someone. Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways: (a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether. e.g. It was unfortunate that the patient was brought in during the evening. Whether she was determined to bring matters to a crisis, or whether she was prompted by some private sign from Mr. Buff, is more than I can tell. (b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whoever, whatever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs). e.g. What was done could not be undone. Whatever I can do for you will be nothing but paying a debt... (c) asyndetically. e.g. It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her. Predicative Clauses Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate, i. e. a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate. Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways: (a) by means of the conjunctions that, if whether, as if. e.g. Our attitude simply is that facts are facts. The thing to be settled on now is whether anything can be done to save him. e.g. I felt as if death had laid a hand on me. (b) by means of the connectives who, which, what (conjunctive pronouns), where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs). e.g. But this time, just about sunset, was always what I loved best. (c) asyndetically. e.g. Another thing... was they had nurse Andrews staying on with them that week. Object Clauses Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal clause. e.g. I don’t know what you are talking about. An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state. e.g. I formed the habit of calling in on him in the evening to discuss what I had heard. They were not sure what tomorrow would bring forth. The poor girl is anxious that you should be at her wedding. She was aware that someone else was there. Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways: (a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether, e.g. You know quite well, Ariadne, that I have not an ounce of pettish-ness in my dispos ition. Time will show whether Sam is right or wrong. (b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, whichever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs). e.g. I’ll do just what I say. He wondered why he should look back... I don’t know where he developed his prose style, probably in the best of schools, the open air. (c) asyndetically. e.g. He said there was nothing much the matter with me. An object clause is sometimes preceded by the introductory object it. e.g. I insist upon it that you tell me what you mean. Attributive Clauses Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositive ones. Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attributive appositive clauses disclose its meaning. e.g. The facts those men were so eager to know had been visible, tangible, open to the senses. (ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE) The fortunate fact that the rector’s letter did not require an immediate answer would give him time to consider. (ATTRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSE) Attributive relative clauses are joined to the principal clause syndetically – by means of connectives, and asyndetically; attributive appositive clauses only syndetically – by means of conjunctions. Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non-restrictive or descriptive. 1. An attributive relative restrictive clause restricts the meaning of the antece dent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated by a comma from the principal clause because of its close connection with it. Attributive relative restrictive clauses are introduced by: (a) relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as1); (b) relative adverbs (where, when); (c) asyndetically. 2. As introduces attributive clauses when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause. e.g. You could not but feel sympathy for a man who took so much delight in simple things. He sang a loud song... such a song as the Spanish wagoneers sing in Algeria. I think my father is the best man I have ever known. 3. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does rot restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. As the connection between the principal clause and the attributive non-restrictive clause is loose, they are often separated by a comma. Attributive relative non-restrictive clauses are in most cases introduced syndetically by means of: (a) relative pronouns (who, which); (b) relative adverbs (where, when). e.g. Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got off his stool. She uttered a wild scream, which in its heart-rending intensity seemed to echo for miles. The relative pronoun that is hardly ever used to introduce an attributive relative non-restrictive clause. e.g. He had emotion, fire, longings, that were concealed behind a wall of reserve. Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is expressed by an abstract noun. An attributive appositive clause is not separated from the principal clause by a comma. Appositive clauses are chiefly introduced by the conjunction that, occasionally by the conjunction whether or by the adverbs how and why. They are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically. e.g. He stopped in the hope that she would speak. I have a presentiment that he is bringing trouble and misery with him into the house. |
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