Учебно-методический комплекс дисциплины Федеральное агентство по образованию Государственное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования

The use of relative pronouns in attributive relative clauses. As has already been stated, attributive relative clauses are introduced by the following relative pronouns: who, which, that, as. In using these pronouns the following rules should be observed: 1. If the antecedent is a noun denoting a living being, who is mostly used. e.g. Kate turned to the general, who was near her, his face expres-sionless, yet alert. 2. If the antecedent is a noun denoting an inanimate object, which is mostly used. e.g. The castle, which stood on the highest platform of the clustered hills, was built of rough-hewn limestone. 3. The pronoun that may be used both when the antecedent is a noun denot ing a living being and when it is a noun denoting an inanimate object. But it should be noted that the use of this pronoun in attributive clauses is limited; it is chiefly used in the following cases: (a) if the antecedent is the pronoun all, everything or nothing. e.g. All that she dreams comes true. (b) if the antecedent is modified by an adjective in the superlative degree by the adjective only, or by the indefinite pronoun any. e.g. The door opened, and there entered to us, quietly, the most remarkable-looking man that I had ever seen. 4. If the antecedent is a noun modified by the demonstrative pronoun such the relative pronoun as is used. e.g. For on the evening appointed for the Vauxhall party.,. there came on such a thunderstorm as only happens on Vauxhall nights, and as obliged the young people, perforce, to remain at home. Adverbial Clauses An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial modifier. It can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause. e.g. He stopped as Kravat came rushing out. He was getting on better than he’d expected. Frank... returned to the auction room as fast as his legs would carry him. According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial clauses: adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), purpose, condition, concession, result, manner, and comparison. Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions; they are not joined to the principal clause asyndeti-cally except sometimes adverbial clauses of conditior. An adverbial clause may precede the clause to which it is subordinated or follow it. In the first case it is separated from the principal clause by a comma, in the second, as a rule, no comma is used. An adverbial clause may also interrupt the principal clause, in which case a comma is used at the beginning and at the end of it. e.g. When things are at the worst, they’re sure to mend. The first words, when we had taken our seats, were spoken by my lady. 1. Adverbial clauses of time. An adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while, whenever (когда бы ни), as, till, until, as soon as, as long as, since, after, before, now that (теперь, когда). e.g. Jan waved till the taxi disappeared round the bend in the road. After this, they conversed on different subjects until they arrived at their journey’s end. But as soon as I saw Susan I stopped noticing my surroundings. You can stay here as long as you want. 2. Adverbial clauses of place. An adverbial clause of place shows the place of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions where and wherever (где бы ни, куда бы ни). e.g. ... the street singers and players were making their nightly pilgrimage, pausing, wherever they saw a lighted window or a dark figure on a balcony. Note. – One should not confuse the conjunction where introducing adverbial clauses of place with the adverb where introducing subject clauses, predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive relative clauses. e.g. Deronda placed himself where he could see her ... (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PLACE) This must be where my sister lives. This is where she came for a tem-porary lodging, soon after father’s death. (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE) Artois wondered where they were going. (OBJECT CLAUSE) He turned immediately towards the hearth where Silas Marner sat lulling the child. (ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE) 3. Adverbial clauses of cause. An adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of cause are introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason that and some others. e.g. As he had a liking for the spot, he seldom let a week pass without paying it a visit. Letters were infrequent in his world and not very welcome because more often than not they contained bad news. 4. Adverbial clauses of purpose. Adverbial clauses of purpose state the purpose of the action exprsssed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest (чтобы не) and some others. e.g. She kept her back to the rising colour, crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I should not be seen. 5. Adverbial clauses of condition. Adverbial clauses of condition state the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions if, unless (если не), suppose, in case (в случае если), on condition that, provided (при условии что), etc. e.g. If he is not here by the end of the week, I shall go after him. I do not wish you to be my wife unless you are bound to me by love. Adverbial clauses of condition can be joined to the principal clause asyndetically. In this case we find inversion in the subordinate clause. e.g. ... should Frank marry to-morrow, I shall have no ground for blaming him. Had she been an Englishwoman, Artois would have guessed her to be near fifty. 6. Adverbial clauses of concession. An adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the following conjunctions and connectives: though, although, as, no matter how, however, whoever, whatever, whichever. In official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions notwithstanding that, in spite of the fact that. e.g. I enjoyed that day, though we travelled slowly, though it was cold, though it rained. The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of concession in which the predicative stands first. e.g. Troubled as he was, he never exposed his difficulties to her. 7. Adverbial clauses of result. Adverbial clauses of result denote the result of the action expressed in the principal clause. Very often adverbial clauses of this type have an additional meaning of degree. Adverbial clauses of pure result are introduced by the conjunction so that; they are usually separated from the principal clause by a comma. e.g. Darkness had fallen and a keen blizzard was blowing, so that the streets were nearly deserted. Adverbial clauses of result with an additional meaning of degree are introduced by the conjunction that; in these cases we find the adverb so or the demonstrative pronoun such in the principal clause. Such clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma. e.g. He is so weak physically that he can hardly move. 8. Adverbial clauses of manner. Adverbial clauses of manner characterize in a general way the action expressed in the principal clause. They are usually introduced by the conjunction as. In adverbial clauses of manner the idea of comparison is often implied. e.g. ... she did exactly as he told her. Joe left the house as he had entered it... 9. Adverbial clauses of comparison. Adverbial clauses of comparison denote an action with which the action of the principal clause is compared. They are introduced by the conjunctions than, as, as... as, not so... as, as if, as though. e.g. Mr. Direck’s broken wrist healed sooner than he desired. She could see his lips moving, from time to time, as though he were talking to himself. Some of the conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are polysemantic and can introduce different types of adverbial clauses. For instance, the conjunction as may introduce adverbial clauses of time, cause, manner, and comparison. e.g. As he spoke there was a sharp ring at the bell. (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME) As the morning was fine, and he had an hour on his hands, he crossed the river by the ferry, and strolled along a footpath through some meadows. (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE) The dog did as he was ordered. (Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF MANNER) She (Lillian) saw now that she did not love him (Cowperwood) as some women love their husbands.) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF COMPARISON) The conjunction since introduces adverbial clauses of time and cause. e.g. It was a long time since I had written to the States... (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME) Since the lunchroom was full, she sat at our table, and reached out for the bill of fare. (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE) The composite conjunction so that introduces adverbial clauses of result and purpose. e.g. They were rich and I was poor, so that it was no easy matter for me to follow them. (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT) I turned away, so that Frith should not see my face. (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE) The Compound-Complex Sentences A compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more coordinate clauses one of which at least has one or several subordinate clauses. e.g. There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued at the lips. grammatical terms 1. Parts of Speech Noun common proper abstract collective of material Adjective qualitative relative Pronoun demonstrative personal possessive indefinite reciprocal interrogative conjunctive relative Verb auxiliary modal regular irregular notional Adverb Numeral cardinal ordinal Modal words Stative Preposition Conjunction coordinative subordinative copulative disjunctive adversative causative Interjection Particle Article definite indefinite 2. Parts of the Sentence Subject personal impersonal indefinite-personal Predicate simple compound verbal nominal link-verb predicative Object direct indirect prepositional Attribute detached Antecedent Apposition Adverbial modifier of manner of comprasion of time of place of measure of degree of result of attendant circumstances of purpose of condition of concession Parenthesis Adress Homogeneous parts 3. Types of Sentences and Clauses Simple Sentence one-member two-member extended unextended affirmative negative declarative interrogative imperative exclamatory Compound Complex Mixed Clause coordinate subordinate main principal Subject Clause Predicative Clause Object Clause Attributive Clause relative restrictive descriptive appositive Adverbial Clause of manner of comprasion of result of time of place of cause of purpose of condition of concession 4. Grammatical Categories Case nominative genitive possessive common Gender masculine feminine neuter Number singular plural Person Tense present past future future-in-the-past perfect Aspect common continuous perfective imperfective Voice active passive Mood indicative imperative subjunctive Degree of comprasion positive comparative superlative Suggested Ways of Sentence Analysis The simple sentence 1. I found my life dull. It is a simple ewenwa two-mcmbcr declarative sentence. I is the subject expressed by a personal pronoun of the 1st person singular. found is a simple verbal predicate expressed by the past indefinite of the verb to find. my life dull is a predicative complex (or a complex object) expressed by an objective non-verbal construction (or by an object + objective predicative). 2. The whole house being made of wood, it looked good. It is a simple extended two-member declarative sentence. it is the subject expressed by a personal pronoun of the 3rd person singular. looked good is the predicate. It is a compound nominal predicate, consisting of a link verb and a predicative. looked is a link verb expressed by the past indefinite of the link verb to look, which is a link verb of being in a state. the whole house being made of wood is an adverbial modifier of reason expressed by a nominative absolute participial construction. 3. Is the weather not likely to change? It is a simple unextended two-member interrogative sentence. the weather is the subject expressed by a common noun in the common case. Is not likely to change is the predicate. It is a compound verbal predicate of double orientation. It consists of two parts. Is not likely is the first part. It denotes the estimate of the speaker of, or his attitude to, the situation described in the sentence. It is expressed by a phrase with a modal meaning. to change is the second part. It denotes the action itself and is expressed by a non-perfect infinitive. The compound sentence It is a compound sentence comprising two coordinate clauses which are connected by adversative connection expressed by the adversative conjunction whereas. The complex sentence It is a complex sentence comprising two clauses. The main clause is The woman was very cheerful. The subordinate clause is who ran the place. It is a restrictive relative attributive clause modifying the subject of the main clause as its antecedent. The compound – complex sentence Why were her own relations so rich, and Phil never knew where the money was coming from for tomorrow’s tobacco? It is a compound – complex sentence consisting of two coordinated clauses connected by contrasting relations and linked by the copulative conjunction and. Besides two coordinated clauses the sentence comprises one subordinate clause which depends on the second coordinate clause. It is an object clause introduced by the conjunctive adverb where.

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