Учебно-методический комплекс дисциплины
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Cultural and institutional terms. 1.Primary and secondary education. The British educational system has much in common with that on the continent: 1) Full-time education is compulsory for children in their middle teens: parents are required by law to ensure that their children receive full-time education between the ages of 5 and 16 (in England, Scotland and Wales); 2) The academic year begins at the end of the summer; 3) Compulsory education is free of charge; 4) There are three stages of schooling: children move from primary school (the first stage) to secondary school (the second stage); the third stage (= the tertiary level) provides further and higher education (in colleges of further education, technical colleges, etc. and universities). The most important distinguishing features of education in Britain are 1) the lack of uniformity and 2) comparatively little central control. Central government does not prescribe a detailed plan of learning, books and materials to be used, nor does it dictate the exact hours of the school day, the exact days of holidays, etc. Many such details are left to the discretion of the individual institution or of the Local Education Authority (LEA). There is no countrywide system of nursery (i.e. pre-primary) schools. In some areas there are nursery schools and classes (e.g., reception classes in primary schools in England), providing informal education and play facilities, but they are not compulsory. The present Labour government is working to expand pre-school education. It wants all children to begin school with a basic foundation in what is known as ‘the three Rs’ (Reading, wRiting, and aRithmetic). The average child begins his or her compulsory education at the age of 5, starting primary school (‘infant schools’ are for children aged between 5 and 7 and ‘junior schools’ for those between 8 and 11). The majority of state secondary school pupils in England and Wales attend comprehensive schools which take pupils irrespective of ability or aptitude and provide a wide range of education for all (or most) children in a district. In a number of areas in England, some state-educated children still attend grammar or secondary modern schools, to which they are allocated after selection procedures at the age of 11. There also exists another type of schools, called specialist schools. They are state secondary schools specialising in technology, science and mathematics; sport; modern foreign languages; or the arts — of course, in addition to providing the full National Curriculum. The specialist schools programme in England was launched in 1993. There are some grant-maintained or voluntary aided secondary schools, called City Technology Colleges (CTCs) which are non-fee-paying (= free) independent secondary schools created by a partnership of government and private sector sponsors. Such colleges teach the National Curriculum, but mostly with an emphasis on mathematics, science and technology. Under the National Curriculum a greater emphasis at the secondary level is laid on science and technology. Accordingly, ten subjects have to be studied: English, history, geography, mathematics, science, a modern foreign language (at secondary level), technology (including design), music, art, and physical education. Three of these subjects (called the ‘core subjects’) were chosen for special attention: English, science, mathematics, seven other subjects are known as ‘foundation or statutory subjects’. Besides, subjects are grouped into departments: (1) Humanities Department: Geography, Media Studies, English Literature, Drama, History, Economics, PE, Social Science; (2) Science Department: Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Mathematics; (3) Language Department: French, German, English Language; (4) Craft, Design and Technology Department: Computing, Information and Communications Technology, Home Economics, Photography. The latter (often known as CTD) brings together the practical subjects like cooking, woodwork, metalwork, etc. with the new technologies used in those fields. This subject area exemplifies the ‘process approach’ to learning introduced by the National Curriculum. Schools normally divide their year into three ‘terms’, starting at the beginning of September: Autumn term, Christmas holiday (about 2 weeks), Spring term, Easter holiday (about 2 weeks), Summer term, Summer holiday (about 6 weeks). Passage from one year to the next one is automatic. Classes of pupils are still called ‘forms’ (though it has recently become common to refer to ‘years’) and are numbered from one to six, beginning with ‘first form’. Nearly all schools work a five-day week. The day starts at or just before 9 o’clock and finishes between 3 and 4. The lunch break normally lasts about an hour-and-a-quarter. Nearly two-thirds of pupils have lunch provided by the school; parents pay for this, except for the 15 per cent who have it for free, because they are too poor to pay for it. Other children either go home for lunch or take sandwiches. At the age of 14, pupils are tested in English, maths and science, as well as in statutory subjects. At that same age they begin to choose their exam subjects and work for two years to prepare for their General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) qualifications. The exams are usually taken at the age of 16 which is a crucial age for school-leavers, because they have to make important decisions as to their future lives and careers. 2.Educational reforms of the 1980s. The latest trends. In the late 1980s, the Conservative government introduced major changes to the system of education. Schools were now allowed to decide whether to remain as LEA-maintained schools or to ‘opt-out’ of their control and to put themselves directly under the control of the government department. These grant-maintained schools were financed directly by central government, which did not mean, however, that there was more central control than with other types of schools. They also introduced a new National Curriculum (see above). The growing importance of PSE (Personal and Social Education): since the 1970s, there has been a considerable emphasis on ‘pastoral’ care, i.e. education in areas related to ‘life skills’, such as health (prevention of drug abuse, sex education, etc.); there are usually one or two lessons a week. Education in Britain is not concentrated exclusively on academic study. Great value is placed on visits and activities, like organising a school club or field trips. The organisation of these activities by teachers is very much taken for granted in the British school system. Some teachers even give up their free time, evenings and weekends, to do this unpaid work. At Christmas, teachers organise concerts, parties and general festivities. Another important development in education administration in England and Wales was the School Standards and Framework Act (July 1998). The Act established that from 1 September 1999 all state school education would be provided by local education authorities, ending the separate category of ‘grant maintained’ institutions. 3.State-financed and independent schools. Today secondary education is largely provided by three types of state schools: secondary modern schools, grammar schools and (now predominant) comprehensive schools. State schools are absolutely free (including all textbooks and exercise books) and generally co-educational. Before 1965, a selective system of secondary education existed in England. Under that system a child of 11 had to take an exam (known as ‘an 11 plus’) which consisted of intelligence tests covering linguistic skills, as well as mathematical and general knowledge and which was to be taken by children in the last year of their primary schooling. The aim of the exam was to select between ‘academic’ and ‘non-academic’ children. Those who did well went on to a grammar school, while those who failed went to a secondary modern school. It was grammar schools that prepared children for national examinations, such as the ‘General Certificate of Education’ (GCE) at ordinary and advanced levels (O- and A-levels). These examinations qualified those who passed them for the better jobs, as well as for entry into higher education and then the professions. Education in secondary modern schools was largely based on practical skills, which would allow the school-leaver entry into a variety of skilled and unskilled jobs. Those who went to ‘secondary moderns’ were widely seen as ‘failures’. Many people complained that it was unfair for a child’s future to be decided at so young an age. Besides, it was noticed that the children who passed this exam were almost all from middle-class families. The Labour Party argued that the 11-plus examination was socially divisive, and when it returned to power in 1965, it abolished the 11-plus and began to introduce a new, non-selective education system based on comprehensive schools that were to provide schooling for children of all ability levels and from all social backgrounds. However, the final choice between selective and non-selective schooling was left to LEAs, some of which opted for comprehensives, while others retained grammar schools and secondary moderns. Many distinctive characteristics of British education are often ascribed to the public school tradition. Eton, Harrow, Rugby and Winchester are among the most famous public schools with hundreds of years of history. It is a fundamental principle of the system that a public school is its own community. In the 19th century, public schools educated the sons of the elite, i.e. the upper and upper-middle classes, and the main aim was to prepare young men to take up positions in the higher ranks of the army and the Church, to fill top jobs in the legal profession and the civil service, as well as in business and politics. Emphasis was made on ‘character-building’ and the encouragement of ‘team spirit’ rather than on academic performance. Public schools were (and still often are) boarding establishments, so they had a profound and lasting influence on their pupils, who later in their lives formed the core of the Establishment, a closed group into which it was difficult to penetrate. The 20th century brought possibilities for social advancement through education within everybody’s reach, and it was only natural that new, state schools tended to copy what they saw as the attractive features of the public schools, although some of them, such as learning for its own sake, rather than for any practical purpose, have clearly done more harm than good. The general style of teaching has traditionally been to develop understanding rather than acquiring factual knowledge and learning to apply it to specific tasks. This traditional public-school approach also helps to explain why the National Curriculum, the purpose of which was to do away with the disparities in the quality of education, was not introduced until 1989 - much later than in most other countries. 4.Further and higher education. “Oxbridge”. After the age of 16 young people who wish to continue with their education have two possibilities — one based on school and college education, and the other on work-based learning. About 70% choose to continue in full-time education. Broadly speaking, education after 16 is divided into further and higher education. Further (and adult) education is mostly vocational and covers courses up to and including General Certificate of Education (GCE) A level and AS qualifications, General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQ) Advanced level. Higher education covers advanced courses higher than GCE A level or its equivalent. Those who wish to go on to higher education stay on two years more into the Sixth form (the Lower Sixth for 17 year-olds and the Upper Sixth for18 year-olds). If their schools do not have the sixth form pupils may choose to go to a Sixth Form College. They concentrate in two or three subjects, in which they take the General Certificate of Education Advanced level (A-level) examinations. The number of subjects taken at A level varies between 1 and 4, although for entry into higher education three are usually required. Since 1988, there has been a new level of examination: the Advanced Supplementary (AS) exam which is worth half an ‘A-level’ and usually involves one year’s study. Pupils can take a combination of ‘A’ and ‘AS’ levels. E.g., an A-level arts student can still study science subjects at AS level. In 1992, there were introduced the General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQ) which are mainly undertaken by young people between the ages of 16 and 18 and focus on vocational skills such as information and technology, business and finance. There are three GNVQ levels — Advanced, Intermediate and Foundation; an Advanced GNVQ requires a level of achievement broadly equal to two GCE A levels. GNVQ courses are generally studied at Colleges of Further Education but more and more schools are also offering them. There is now greater enthusiasm for post-school education in Britain than ever before. A major aim of the government has been to increase the number of students who enter into higher education. It is commonly assumed that the more people study at degree level, the more likely the country is to succeed economically. About a third of all young people in England and Wales, and almost half of those in Scotland continue in education beyond the age of 18. The higher education sector provides a variety of courses up to degree and postgraduate level. It also carries out research. Higher education increasingly caters for older students (cf.: over 50 per cent of students in 1999 were aged 25 and over). Higher education is traditionally associated with universities, though University standard education is also given in other institutions, such as colleges and institutes of higher education, which have the power to award their own degrees. All universities in England and Wales, including Oxford and Cambridge (collectively known as ‘Oxbridge’), but with the exception of the small University of Buckingham, are state universities. |
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