Контрольные вопросы и задания для проведения текущего контроля и промежуточной аттестации по итогам освоения дисциплины
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Итоговый контроль Итоговому экзамену по дисциплине предшествует письменная зачетная работа по переводу со словарем предложенного отрывка (объемом 2500 тыс. знаков) из оригинального неадаптированного специального текста на русский язык. За выполнение этого задания студент может получить 20 баллов. На устном экзамене студенту предлагается выполнить следующие виды заданий:
Результат экзамена (максимум 50 баллов) определяется как сумма письменной и устной частей. Варианты экзаменационных заданий для контроля учебных достижений студентов Тексты по специальной тематике Nitric acid Nitric acid, HNO3, colourless, fuming, and highly corrosive liquid (freezing point -42° C [-44° F], boiling point 83° C [181° F]) that is a common laboratory reagent and an important industrial chemical for the manufacture of fertilizers and explosives. It is toxic and can cause severe burns. The preparation and use of nitric acid were known to the early alchemists. A common laboratory process used for many years, ascribed to a German chemist, Johann Rudolf Glauber (1648), consisted of heating potassium nitrate with concentrated sulfuric acid. In 1776 Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier showed that it contained oxygen, and in 1816 Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac and Claude-Louis Berthollet established its chemical composition. The principal method of manufacture of nitric acid is the catalytic oxidation of ammonia. In the method developed by the German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald in 1901, ammonia gas is successively oxidized to nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide by air or oxygen in the presence of a platinum gauze1 catalyst. The nitrogen dioxide is absorbed in water to form nitric acid. The resulting acid-in-water solution (about 50–70 percent by weight acid) can be dehydrated by distillation with sulfuric acid. Nitric acid decomposes into water, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen, forming a brownish yellow solution. It is a strong acid, completely ionized into hydrogen and nitrate ions in aqueous solution, and a powerful oxidizing agent (one that acts as electron acceptor in oxidation-reduction reactions). Among the many important reactions of nitric acid are: neutralization with ammonia to form ammonium nitrate, a major component of fertilizers; nitration of glycerol and toluene, forming the explosives nitroglycerin and trinitrotoluene, respectively; preparation of nitrocellulose; and oxidation of metals to the corresponding oxides or nitrates. Physical science Physical science is the systematic study of the inorganic world, as distinct from the study of the organic world, which is the province of biological science. Physical science is ordinarily thought of as consisting of four broad areas: astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences. Each of these is in turn divided into fields and subfields. Physics, in its modern sense, was founded in the mid-19th century as a synthesis of several older sciences — namely, those of mechanics, optics, acoustics, electricity, magnetism, heat, and the physical properties of matter. The synthesis was based in large part on the recognition that the different forces of nature are related and are, in fact, interconvertible because they are forms of energy. The boundary between physics and chemistry is somewhat arbitrary. As it has developed in the 20th century, physics is concerned with the structure and behaviour of individual atoms and their components, while chemistry deals with the properties and reactions of molecules. These latter depend on energy, especially heat, as well as on atoms; hence, there is a strong link between physics and chemistry. Chemists tend to be more interested in the specific properties of different elements and compounds, whereas physicists are concerned with general properties shared by all matter. Astronomy is the science of the entire universe beyond the Earth; it includes the Earth's gross physical properties, such as its mass and rotation, insofar as they interact with other bodies in the solar system. Until the 18th century, astronomers were concerned primarily with the Sun, Moon, planets, and comets. During the last two centuries, however, the study of stars, galaxies, nebulas2, and the interstellar3 medium has become increasingly important. Celestial4 mechanics, the science of the motion of planets and other solid objects within the solar system, was the first testing ground for Newton's laws of motion and thereby helped to establish the fundamental principles of classical (that is, pre-20th-century) physics. Astrophysics, the study of the physical properties of celestial bodies, arose during the 19th century and is closely connected with the determination of the chemical composition of those bodies. In the 20th century physics and astronomy have become more intimately linked through cosmological theories, especially those based on the theory of relativity. History Titanium ore was first discovered in 1791 in Cornish beach sands by an English clergyman5, William Gregor. The actual identification of the oxide was made a few years later by a German chemist, M.H. Klaproth. Klaproth gave the metal constituent of this oxide the name titanium, after the Titan, the giants of Greek mythology. Pure metallic titanium was first produced in either 1906 or 1910 by M.A. Hunter at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (Troy, N.Y., U.S.) in cooperation with the General Electric Company. These researchers believed titanium had a melting point of 6,000° C [10,800° F], but Hunter produced a metal with a melting point closer to 1,800° C [3,300° F]. Hunter did indicate that the metal had some ductility, and his method of producing it by reacting titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with sodium under vacuum was later commercialized and is now known as the Hunter process. Metal of significant ductility was produced in 1925 by the Dutch scientists A.E. van Arkel and J.H. de Boer, who dissociated titanium tetraiodide on a hot filament6 in an evacuated glass bulb. In 1932 William J. Kroll of Luxembourg produced significant quantities of ductile titanium by combining TiCl4 with calcium. By 1938 Kroll had produced 20 kilograms (50 pounds) of titanium and was convinced that it possessed excellent corrosion and strength properties. At the start of World War II he fled Europe and continued his work in the United States at the Union Carbide Company and later at the U.S. Bureau of Mines. By this time, he had changed the reducing agent from calcium to magnesium metal. Kroll is now recognized as the father of the modern titanium industry, and the Kroll process is the basis for most current titanium production. A U.S. Air Force study conducted in 1946 concluded that titanium-based alloys were engineering materials of potentially great importance. As a result, the Department of Defense provided production incentives to start the titanium industry in 1950. Similar industrial capacity was founded in Japan, the U.S.S.R., and the United Kingdom. After this impetus7 was provided by the aerospace industry, the ready availability of the metal gave rise to opportunities for new applications in other markets, such as chemical processing, medicine, power generation, and waste treatment. Wohler, Friedrich Born July 31, 1800, Eschersheim, near Frankfurt on Main (Germany) Died Sept. 23, 1882, Gottingen (Germany) e  b://gateway/g?gtype=content_frame&media_name=cap/00265/09.htmlWohler Friedrich is a German chemist, first to synthesize (1828) an organic compound (urea) from an inorganic substance. About the same time, he developed a process for preparing metallic aluminum.Wohler was educated at the Frankfurt Gymnasium. In 1820 he entered the University of Marburg, intending to become a physician. In the following year he moved to Heidelberg, where he came under the influence of one of the most prominent chemists of Germany, Leopold Gmelin. Gmelin recognized Wohler's ability and advised him to make chemistry his career. Accordingly, though the young man received a medical degree in 1823, he decided to give up practical medicine and take up the study of chemistry with the leading chemist of Europe, Jons Jacob Berzelius, in Stockholm. He worked with the latter for nearly a year, from 1823 to 1824. He not only absorbed the techniques and the interest in the chemistry of new elements, for which Berzelius was famous, but also developed a lifelong friendship with his master. His correspondence with Berzelius throws much light on the personalities of both men. Wohler later translated the major reviews and textbooks of Berzelius into German. Upon his return to Germany Wohler began in 1825 to teach chemistry at the municipal technical school in Berlin. He remained at this institution until 1831 and there made two of his major discoveries. In 1828 he synthesized urea, which had been considered a purely animal product, from ammonium cyanate, an inorganic compound. This achievement has been hailed by older historians of science as an important step in the overthrow of the doctrine of vitalism, the theory that a special life force directs the processes in living bodies. More recently it has been recognized that Wohler was more interested in the chemical reactions of urea than in the philosophical significance of its synthesis. About the same time that he synthesized urea, Wohler developed a method for the preparation of metallic aluminum on a small scale. The method was later expanded to an industrial process. Boyle, Robert Born Jan. 25, 1627, Lismore, County Waterford, Ireland Died Dec. 30, 1691, London, England Anglo-Irish chemist and natural philosopher noted for his pioneering experiments on the properties of gases and his espousal of a corpuscular view of matter that was a forerunner of the modern theory of chemical elements. He was a founding member of the Royal Society of London. He began his experimental work in Dorset, where he wrote moral essays. One of his essays is reputed to have inspired the writing of Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift. He spent some time in Ireland in connection with his estates; because laboratory apparatus was unobtainable there, he engaged in anatomical dissection. From 1656 to 1668 he resided at the University of Oxford, where he had the good fortune to secure the assistance of Robert Hooke, the able inventor and subsequent curator of experiments to the Royal Society, who helped him construct an air pump. Recognizing at once its scientific possibilities, Boyle conducted pioneering experiments in which he demonstrated the physical characteristics of air and the necessary role of air in combustion, respiration, and the transmission of sound. Boyle described this work in 1660 in New Experiments Physio-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects. To the second edition of this work, in 1662, he appended his report of 1661 to the Royal Society on the relationship, now known as Boyle's law, that at a constant temperature the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure. In 1661Boyle attacked the Aristotelian theory of the four elements (earth, air, fire, and water) and also the three principles (salt, sulfur, and mercury) proposed by Paracelsus. Instead, he developed the concept of primary particles which by coalition produce corpuscles. According to this concept, different substances result from the number, position, and motion of the primary matter. All natural phenomena were therefore explained not by Aristotelian elements and qualities but by the motion and organization of primary particles. Boyle did not postulate different kinds of primary elements — the 19th-century view — but his ideas are valid within certain limits. In his experimental work he also studied the calcination of metals and proposed a means of distinguishing between acid and alkaline substances, which was the origin of the use of chemical indicators. He was also interested in trades and manufacturing processes. Hans Christian Orsted (also spelled Oersted) Born Aug. 14, 1777, Rudkøbing, Denmark Died March 9, 1851, Copenhagen Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that electric current in a wire can deflect a magnetized compass needle, a phenomenon the importance of which was rapidly recognized and which inspired the development of electromagnetic theory. I  n 1806 Ørsted became a professor at the University of Copenhagen, where his first physical research dealt with electric currents and acoustics. During an evening lecture in April 1820, Ørsted discovered that a magnetic needle aligns8 itself perpendicularly to a current-carrying wire, definite experimental evidence of the relationship between electricity and magnetism. This phenomenon had been first discovered by the Italian jurist Gian Domenico Romagnosi in 1802, but his announcement was ignored.Ørsted's discovery (1820) of piperine, one of the pungent components of pepper, was an important contribution to chemistry, as was his preparation of metallic aluminum in 1825. In 1824 he founded a society devoted to the spread of scientific knowledge among the general public. Since 1908 this society has awarded an Ørsted Medal for outstanding contributions by Danish physical scientists. In 1932 the name oersted was adopted for the physical unit of magnetic field strength. Hans Christian Ørsted and an assistant observe a demonstration of the effects of an electromagnetic current. Тексты по страноведческой тематике Museum of London Museum dedicated to recording and representing the history of the London region from prehistoric times to the present day. Situated at the junction of London Wall and Aldersgate Street in the Barbican district of the City of London, the present building, designed by Philip Powell and Hidalgo Moya, was opened in 1976. It is the largest urban-history museum in the world. Created by act of Parliament in 1965, the Museum of London brought together the collections of two well-established museums, the Guildhall Museum and the London Museum. The former, founded by the Corporation of London in 1826, housed many archaeological discoveries of the previous two centuries from Roman and medieval London. The London Museum, opened in 1912, had been conceived partly as a memorial to Edward VII, and as a result it attracted royal collections. Other acquisitions included the John G. Joicey collection of Chelsea and Bow porcelain and decorative arts, Sir Richard Tangye's English Civil Wars collection, and more than 400 pieces of English glass amassed by Sir Richard Garton. The museum's displays have been conceived as a "biography" of London and have a strong social-history element. Arranged chronologically, the glimpses of London life include reconstructed furnished rooms from Roman Londinium, as well as marble sculptures from the Temple of Mithras; fine medieval pottery and metalwork; Tudor and Stuart arms, armour, and costumes; theatre memorabilia; a cell from Newgate Prison; shop interiors of various London trades; and a handsome cab. Among the many popular exhibits are a diorama of the Great Fire of London in 1666 and the lord mayor's state coach, dating to 1757. Marie Tussaud is a French-born founder of Madame Tussaud's museum of wax figures, in central London. Her early life was spent first in Bern and then in Paris, where she learned the art of wax modeling from her uncle, Philippe Curtius, whose two wax museums she inherited upon his death in 1794. From 1780 until the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, she served as art tutor at Versailles to Louis XVI's sister, Madame Elisabeth, and she was later imprisoned as a royalist. During the Reign of Terror she had the gruesome responsibility of making death masks from heads — frequently those of her friends — freshly severed by the guillotine. Her marriage in 1795 to Francois Tussaud, an engineer from Macon, was not a success; and in 1802 she took her two sons and her collection of wax models to England. She toured the British Isles for 33 years before finally establishing a permanent home in Baker Street, London, where she worked until eight years before her death. In 1884 Madame Tussaud's moved to the Marylebone Road, London. Madame Tussaud's museum is topical as well as historical and includes both the famous and the infamous. Notorious characters and the relics of famous crimes are segregated in the “Chamber of Horrors,” a name coined jokingly by a contributor to Punch in 1845. Many of the original models made by Marie Tussaud of her great contemporaries, such as Voltaire, Benjamin Franklin, Horatio Nelson, and Sir Walter Scott, are still preserved. |
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