Контрольные вопросы и задания для проведения текущего контроля и промежуточной аттестации по итогам освоения дисциплины
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Broadcasting National Broadcasting Corporation had installed nationwide television service by 1951 and quickly became one of the three major television networks. In 1953 it pioneered the first coast-to-coast transmission of a colour television broadcast, and in 1956 it made the first television broadcast recorded on videotape (rather than presented live). In 1964 NBC presented the first made-for-television movie. Though its television operations continued to expand throughout the 1960s and '70s, NBC's radio business sagged, and in 1988 the company sold most of its remaining radio stations. In the 1990s NBC began to establish itself in cable television with CNBC and other new cable networks. In 1996 it created MSNBC, a joint venture with Microsoft to deliver news and programming on the Internet. American broadcasting company (ABC) is a major American television network that is a division of the Walt Disney Company. Its headquarters are in New York City. The company's history traces to 1926, when the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) and several other firms founded the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) to operate a nationwide radio broadcasting network. NBC expanded so rapidly that by 1928 it found itself with an excess of affiliates in the same cities, so it split its programming into two separate networks called the Red and the Blue networks. After the Federal Communications Commission declared in 1941 that no company could own more than one radio network, NBC sold the Blue Network to Edward J. Noble, the millionaire maker of Life Savers candy, who named it the American Broadcasting System. The following year he changed the company's name to American Broadcasting Company, Inc. (ABC).In 1953 United Paramount Theatres, the movie theatre arm of Paramount Pictures, merged with ABC, which thereby became the owner of several hundred American movie houses (many of which were sold in 1974). The merger provided ABC with the capital it needed to expand its presence in the new medium of television, and it quickly became one of the three major television networks. From the early 1960s, the ABC television network was a major broadcaster of sports; instant replay was developed by ABC engineers in 1961. In 1955, ABC entered the phonograph record business with the purchase of a subsidiary and, over the years, under the consolidated ABC Records Division, developed such labels as ABC, Westminster, Dot, and Impulse. In 1979, the record division was sold and a video division was begun. In 1985 ABC Companies was purchased by Capital Cities Communications, Inc. In 1995–96 Capital Cities/ABC Inc. was acquired by the Walt Disney Company for $19,000,000,000, thereby creating the world's largest media and entertainment company. Australian languages Australian languages form a group of approximately 260 interrelated languages whose speakers once occupied the entire Australian continent as well as the western islands of Torres Strait, but apparently not Tasmania. Virtually all are believed to have originated from a single proto-Australian language. These languages are not known to be related to any outside language. The great majority of them were either extinct or nearing extinction in the late 20th century. Still-vigorous languages have, for the most part, only a few hundred speakers each. The languages with the most speakers age Mabuiag, the language of the Western Torres Strait islands, and the Western Desert language. The Australian Aboriginal languages are characterized by great similarities in their sound systems and considerable agreement in grammar but often by markedly few similarities in vocabulary. Intelligibility between neighbouring forms of speech is common, and dialect chains stretching over amazing distances occur, though the two extremes of such a chain seem to be quite distinct languages. Every tribe speaks at least one distinct dialect, but bilingualism and multilingualism are common in many areas. Many individual languages have parallel forms, characterized by special vocabularies and sometimes by special sounds that are used in cultural avoidance situations (e.g., to mothers-in-law) or as secret languages among initiated men on certain occasions. No genetic link is known to exist between the Australian languages and any outside language. It is believed that languages ancestral to the present-day ones were introduced into Australia by peoples that crossed Arnhem Land in northern Australia many millennia ago. With the apparent exception of the influence of Papuan languages on the languages of the Cape York Peninsula, the Australian languages remained free from outside influence until the arrival of European settlers late in the 18th century. The great majority of the Australian languages were nearing extinction by the third quarter of the 20th century, with about 50 or more extinct, predominantly in the east, south, and west of the continent. Most languages have very few surviving speakers; still-vigorous languages have, for the most part, only a few hundred speakers each, though Mabuiag (the language of the western Torres Strait islands) and the Western Desert language have 8,000 and 4,000 speakers, respectively. About 45,000 Aborigines may still have some knowledge of an Australian language, but accurate figures of the speakers of individual languages are almost impossible to obtain. Extensive research on the Australian languages has been carried out since 1960, largely through the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies in Canberra. The results of this and earlier research have shown the Australian languages to be interrelated and have made it possible to explain their structural differences in terms of a typological development from a simple to a complex structure. In addition, a considerable amount of detailed information on the grammar of numerous Australian languages has been recorded. Commonwealth of Australia the smallest continent and one of the largest countries on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans in the Southern Hemisphere. The capital is Canberra. Australia has been called “the Oldest Continent,” “the Last of Lands,” and “the Last Frontier.” These descriptions typify the fascination with Australia overseas since World War II, but they are somewhat unsatisfactory. In simple physical terms the age of much of the continent is certainly impressive—most of the rocks providing the foundation of Australian landforms were formed during the Precambrian and Palaeozoic eras (3.8 billion to 245 million years ago) — but the ages of the cores of all the continents are approximately the same. On the other hand, whereas the landscape history of extensive areas in Europe and North America has been profoundly influenced by events and processes that have occurred since the last Ice Age — during, say, the past 25,000 years — in Australia scientists must accommodate to a time scale extending over 250 million years. Australia is the last of lands only in the sense that it was the last continent, apart from Antarctica, to be discovered and explored by Europeans. At least 40,000 years before European explorers sailed into the South Pacific, the first Aborigines had arrived from Asia, and by 20,000 years ago they had spread throughout the mainland and its chief island outlier, Tasmania. When Captain Arthur Phillip of the British Royal Navy landed with the 1st Fleet at Botany Bay in 1788, there may have been between 250,000 and 500,000 Aborigines altogether, though some estimates are much higher. The most striking characteristics of the vast, three-million-square-mile (eight-million-square-kilometre) country are its global isolation, its low relief, and the aridity9 of much of its surface. Its isolation from other continents explains much of the strangeness of Australian plant and animal life; its low relief results from the long and extensive erosive action of the forces of wind, rain, and the heat of the sun during the great periods of geologic time when the continental mass was elevated well above sea level. Isolation is also a pronounced characteristic of much of the social landscape beyond the large coastal cities, but an equally significant feature of modern Australian society is the representation of a very wide spectrum of cultures drawn from many lands, a development that is transforming the original cultural orientation. Historically part of the British Empire and now a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Commonwealth of Australia is a relatively prosperous, independent nation. Australians are in many respects fortunate in that they do not share their continent — which is only a little smaller than the United States — with any other nation. Extremely remote from their traditional allies and trading partners — it is some 12,000 miles (19,000 kilometres) from Australia to Great Britain via the Indian Ocean and the Suez Canal and about 7,000 miles (11,000 kilometres) across the Pacific Ocean to the west coast of the United States—Australians are becoming rather more interested in the proximity of huge potential markets in Asia and in the highly competitive industrialized economies of Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Wales: Cultural life Although united politically, administratively, and economically with England since the Act of Union of 1536, Wales has been able to preserve, maintain, and develop a somewhat independent cultural identity. It is the interplay between English and Welsh elements — sometimes united, sometimes independent, and sometimes in conflict — that characterizes contemporary cultural life in Wales. A more distinctive perception of Welsh identity emerged in the final decades of the 20th century, arguably underpinning support for creation of the National Assembly for Wales, which was approved by referendum in 1997. Wales may be described as possessing a Welsh-speaking, rural north and west and an English-speaking, urban, and industrial south and east. The Welsh-speaking areas long considered themselves culturally Welsh rather than British, and during the 20th century many Welsh thus sought connections to a wider pan-Celtic network of minority groups such as Bretons, Basques, and Galicians. The English-speaking areas, on the other hand, largely rejected definitions of Welsh identity that were too closely allied to the Welsh language, and some promoted an alternative cosmopolitanism. By the early 21st century the divide between the two groups had begun to break down as a wider sense of inclusive Welshness took hold. The process was reinforced by the revival of the Welsh language in South Wales and its widespread presence in the media. Daily life in Wales varies markedly by region. Social advantage and deprivation can exist side by side, particularly in parts of South Wales. The population also varies in terms of its cultural diversity, from the cosmopolitanism of Cardiff to the traditionally monolithic industrial communities. Although rural Wales has often been described as a cultural heartland, many of its small towns have lost a measure of their cultural, and especially linguistic, distinctiveness. Nonetheless, many parts of northern and western Wales remain predominantly Welsh-speaking, and people there may live their daily lives largely through the medium of Welsh, perhaps including their places of employment. Children receive Welsh-language instruction at preschool, primary, and secondary levels, and some courses at the University of Wales are taught in Welsh in addition to those focusing on the Welsh language and literature. Wales celebrates the national holidays of Great Britain. In addition, many institutions have effectively made St. David's Day (March 1), the feast day of the patron saint of Wales, into a Welsh holiday. The country's cuisine exhibits the universalizing tendencies of Western culture (with fast food restaurants and processed foods), though some traditional dishes remain popular, including cawl (a light soup containing lamb), Welsh cakes (small fruit scones10 cooked on a griddle), bara brith (a rich fruit bread), and laver bread11 (a red seaweed typically fried with oatmeal and cockles). The Welsh people have enjoyed a revival of traditional foods and of organic farming, with notable contributions from migrants to rural Wales. The long heritage of some groups with Italian ancestry, particularly in South Wales, is manifest in the large number of family-owned ice cream producers as well as in cafes that are known locally as Bracchis. New Zealand The people:Ethnic structure New Zealand was one of the last sizable land areas suitable for habitation to be populated by human beings. It was first settled by Polynesians who came from somewhere in eastern Polynesia, possibly from what is now French Polynesia. They remained isolated in New Zealand until the arrival of European explorers, the first of whom was the Dutchman Abel Janszoon Tasman (1642). During that time they grew in numbers to between 100,000 and 200,000, living almost exclusively on North Island. They had no name for themselves but eventually adopted the name Maori (meaning “normal”) to distinguish themselves from the Europeans, who, after the voyages of the Englishman Captain James Cook (1769–77), began to come with greater frequency. The Europeans brought with them an array of diseases to which the Maori had no resistance, and this precipitated a rapid decline in the Maori population. By 1896 there were only about 42,000 Maori left. Early in the 20th century, however, their numbers began to increase as they acquired resistance to such diseases as measles and influenza and as their birth rate subsequently recovered. Europeans had begun to settle in New Zealand in the 1820s; they arrived in increasing numbers after the country was annexed by Great Britain in 1840. By the late 1850s, settlers outnumbered Maori, and in 1900, there were some 772,000 Europeans, most of whom by then were New Zealand-born. Although the overwhelming majority of immigrants were of British extraction, other Europeans came as well, notably from Scandinavia, Germany, Greece, Italy, and the Balkans. Groups of central Europeans came between World Wars I and II, and a large body of Dutch immigrants arrived after World War II. Asians coming to New Zealand have included Chinese and Indians and more recently a growing community of Pacific Islanders from Samoa (formerly Western Samoa), the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau. Contemporary New Zealand thus has a great majority of people of European origin, a significant minority of Maori, and smaller numbers of Pacific Islanders, Chinese, and Indians. Language and religion New Zealand is predominantly an English-speaking country. Virtually all Maori speak English, and about one-third of them also speak Maori. The Maori language is taught at a number of schools. The only other non-English language spoken by any significant number of people is Samoan. New Zealand is nominally Christian, some three-fifths of the population adhering to the Anglican, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, and Methodist denominations. Minor Protestant sects, the Eastern Orthodox churches, Jewish congregations, and Maori adaptations of Christianity (the Ratana and Ringatu churches) account for nearly all of the rest, although a significant proportion of the population does not claim any religious affiliation. There is no established (official) religion, but Anglican cathedrals are generally used for state occasions. New Zealand Cultural life The cultural milieu in New Zealand is complex: it is predominantly European but also contains elements from many other peoples, particularly the Maori. Immigrant groups have generally tended to assimilate into the European life-style, although traditional customs are still followed by many Tongans, Samoans, and other Pacific Islanders. The Maori, however, have found themselves torn between the pressure to assimilate and the desire to preserve their own culture. The loss of much of their land in the 19th century undermined their political structures, and large-scale conversion to Christianity resulted in the abandonment of traditional religious observances; but there has been a determined effort—especially in the second half of the 20th century—to preserve and revive artistic and social traditions. A renaissance has occurred in Maori wood carving and weaving and in the construction of carved and decorated meeting houses (whare whakairo). Maori songs and dances have become increasingly popular, especially among the young. Maori meetings—whether hui (assemblies) or tangi (funeral gatherings)—are conducted in traditional fashion, with ancient greeting ceremonies strictly observed. The general public has become familiar with Maori art, which is displayed in numerous galleries and museums. European cultural life has progressed rapidly since the early 20th century. Numerous writers were active in the late 19th century, the most successful of whom were historians, such as William Pember Reeves, and ethnologists, including S. Percy Smith and Elsdon Best. The work of the first genuinely original writers of fiction, the short-story writer Katherine Mansfield and the poet R.A.K. Mason, did not appear until the 1920s. There is a host of younger poets, notably Ian Wedde and Elizabeth Smither. A number of novelists have also earned international reputations, notably Janet Frame, Keri Hulme, and Sylvia Ashton-Warner. These and other New Zealand writers have been greatly aided by the growth of the publishing industry in New Zealand during this time. The state has moved progressively since the 1940s to assist and encourage the arts. The Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council gives annual grants in support of theatre, music, modern dance and ballet, and opera, and the New Zealand Literary Fund subsidizes publishers and writers. In addition, New Zealand was one of the first countries to establish a fund to compensate writers for the loss of royalties on books borrowed from libraries rather than purchased. The national orchestra and a weekly cultural publication, the New Zealand Listener, are supported by the government through the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, which controls Radio New Zealand and both channels of Television New Zealand. The government also subsidizes a motion-picture industry that has received growing international recognition. Newspapers in New Zealand provide a high standard of reporting, with substantial coverage of world news provided largely by foreign agencies. No daily paper has a national circulation, but some from the large cities are distributed widely over their respective islands. Numerous local and regional dailies are also published. Sports are the main leisure-time occupation of most of the population. There is widespread participation in most major sports, particularly rugby football. Horse racing is a popular spectator sport. The climate and the variety of terrain allow for year-round activity in many sports. |
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