Учебно-методический комплекс по предмету «Стилистика современного английского языка» подготовлен кандидатом филологических наук, доцентом кафедры английского языка и английской филологии факультета филологии и журналистики мгпу
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A stylistic device is a literary model in which semantic and structural features are blended so that it represents a generalized pattern. Prof. I. R. Galperin calls a stylistic device a generative model when through frequent use a language fact is transformed into a stylistic device. Thus we may say that some expressive means have evolved into stylistic devices which represent a more abstract form or set of forms. It is like an algorithm employed for an expressive purpose. For example, the interplay, interaction, or clash of the dictionary and contextual meanings of words will bring about such stylistic devices as metaphor, metonymy or irony. The nature of the interaction may be affinity (likeness by nature), proximity (nearness in place, time, order, occurrence, relation) or contrast (opposition). Respectively, metaphor is based on the principle of affinity, metonymy is based on proximity and irony is based on opposition: 1. My new dress is as pink as this flower: comparison (ground for comparison—the colour of the flower). 2. Her cheeks were as red as a tulip: simile (ground for simile— colour/beauty/health/freshness) 3. She is a real flower: metaphor (ground for metaphor—frail/ fragrant/tender/beautifUl/helpless...). My love is a red, red rose: metaphor (ground for metaphor - passionate/beautiful/strong...). 4. Ruby lips, hair of gold, snow-white skin: trite metaphors so frequently employed that they hardly have any stylistic power left because metaphor dies of overuse. Such metaphors are also called hackneyed or even dead. A famous literary example of an author’s defiance against immoderate use of trite metaphors is W. Shakespeare’s Sonnet 130 My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun; ‘Coral is far more red than her lips’ red; If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head. I have seen roses ‘damasked, red and white, But no such roses see I in her cheeks; And in some perfumes is there more delight Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks (дурной запах, вонь). I love to hear her speak, yet well I know That music hath a far more pleasing sound; I grant I never saw a goddess go; My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground! And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare As any she belied with false compare. The more unexpected, the less predictable is the ground for comparison the more expressive is the metaphor. Rhetoric is the initial source of information about metaphor, metonymy, epithet, antithesis, chiasmus, anaphora and many more. The classical rhetoric gave us still widely used terms of tropes and figures of speech. The first linguistic theory called ‘sophistry’ appeared in the fifth century B C. Oration played a paramount role in the social and political life of Greece so the art of rhetoric developed into a school: the Greek philosopher Gorgius (483-375 B. C.). Together with another scholar named Trasimachus they created the first school of rhetoric whose principles were later developed by Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) in his books “Rhetoric” and “Poetics”. Aristotle differentiated literary language and colloquial language. This first theory of style included 3 subdivisions: • the choice of words; • word combinations; • figures. 1. The choice of words included lexical expressive means such as foreign words, archaisms, neologisms, poetic words, nonce words and metaphor. 2. Word combinations involved 3 things: a) order of words; b) word-combinations; c) rhythm and period (in rhetoric, a complete sentence), 3. Figures of speech.: a) antithesis; b) assonance of ‘colons; c) equality of colons. A colon in rhetoric means one of the sections of a rhythmical period in Greek chorus consisting of a sequence of 2 to 6 feet. Later contributions by other authors were made into the art of speaking and writing well developed antique system, and is called the Hellenistic Roman rhetoric system. It divided all expressive means into 3 large groups: Tropes, Rhythm (Figures of Speech) and Types of Speech. Tropes: 1. Metaphor - the application of a word (phrase) to an object (concept) it doesn’t literally denote to suggest comparison with another object or concept: A mighty Fortress is our God. 1. Puzzle (Riddle) - a statement that requires thinking over a confusing or difficult problem that needs to be solved. 3. Synecdoche - the mention of a part for the whole: A fleet of 5Q sail (ships) 4. Metonymy - substitution of one word for another on the basis of real connection: Crown for sovereign; Homer for Homer’s poems, wealth for rich people. 5. Catachresis - misuse of a word due to the false folk etymology or wrong application of a term in a sense that does not belong to the word: Alibi for excuse; mental for weak-minded; mutual for common; disinterested for uninterested. A later term for it is ‘malapropism’ that became current due to Mrs. Malaprop, a character from R. Sheridan’s The Rivals (1775). This sort of misuse is mostly based on similarity in sound.: That young violinist is certainly a child progeny (потомок, потомство) (instead of prodigy (чудо)). 6. Epithet - a word or phrase used to describe someone or something with a purpose to praise or blame: It was a lovely, summery evening. 7. Periphrasis - putting things in a round about wiry in order to bring out some important feature or explain more clearly the idea or situation described: I got an Arab boy … and paid him twenty rupees a month, about thirty bob (шиллинг), at which he was highly delighted. (Shute) 8. Hyperbole - use of exaggerated terms for emphasis: A 1000 apologies; to wait an eternity; he is stronger than a lion. 9. Antonomasia - use of a proper name to express a general idea or conversely a common name for a proper one: The Iron Lady; a Solomon; Don Juan. Figures of Speech that create Rhythm 4 large groups: Figures that create rhythm by means of addition 1. Doubling (reduplication, repetition) of words and sounds: Tip-top, helter-skelter, ‘wishy-,washy; oh, the dreary, dreary moorland. 2. Epenalepsis (polysyndeton) - use of several conjunctions: He thought, and thought, and thought, I hadn’t realized until then how small the houses were, how small and mean the shops.(Shute) 3. Anaphora - repetition of a word or words at the beginning of two or more clauses, sentences or verses: No tree, no shrub, no blade of grass, not a bird or beast, not even a fish that was not owned! 4. Enjambment - running on of one thought into the next line, couplet (рифмованное двустишье) or stanza without breaking the syntactical pattern: In Ocean’s wide domains Half buried in the sands Lie skeletons in chains With shackled feet and hands (Longfellow). 5. Asyndeton - omission of conjunction: He provided the poor with jobs, with opportunity, Figures based on compression 1. Zeugma (syllepsis) - a figure by which a verb, adjective or other part of speech, relating to one noun is referred to another: He lost his hat and his temper, with weeping eyes and hearts. 2. Chiasmus - a reversal in the order of words in one of two parallel phrases: He went to the country, to the town went she. 3. Ellipsis - omission of words needed to complete the construction or the sense: Tomorrow at 1.30; The ringleader was hanged and his follower, imprisoned. Figures based on assonance or accord 1. Equality of colons - used to have a power to segment and arrange 2. Proportions and harmony of colons. Figures based on opposition 1. Antithesis - choice or arrangement of words that emphasizes a contrast:Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, wise men use them; Give me liberty or give me death. 2. Paradiastola - the lengthening of a syllable regularly short (in Greek poetry). 3. Anastrophe - a term of rhetoric, meaning, the upsetting for effect of the normal order of words (inversion in contemporary terms): Me he restored, him he hanged. Types of speech Respectively all kinds of speech were labelled and represented in a kind of hierarchy including the following types: elevated; flowery exquisite; poetic; normal; dry; scanty; hackneyed; tasteless. Demetrius of Alexandria (Greece, 3d century BC): The Plain Style, he said, is simple, using many active verbs and keeping its subjects (nouns) spare. Its purposes include lucidity, clarity, familiarity, and the necessity to get its work done crisply and well. This style uses few difficult compounds, coinages or qualifications (such as epithets or modifiers). It avoids harsh sounds, or odd orders. It employs helpful connective terms and clear clauses with firm endings. In every way it tries to be natural, following the order of events themselves with moderation and repetition as hi dialogue. The Eloquent Style in contrast changes the natural order of events to effect control over them and give the narration expressive power rather than sequential account. So this style may be called passive in contrast to active. Sentences are lengthy, rounded, well balanced, with a great deal of elaborately connected material. Words can be unusual, coined; meanings can be implied, oblique, and symbolic. Sounds can fill the mouth, perhaps, harshly. Dionysius of Halicanassus (Rome, lst century BC): “On Imitation”, “Commentaries on the Ancient Orators” and “On the Arrangement of Words”. Gradually the choices of certain stylistic features in different combinations settled into three types - plain, middle and high. Stylistic theory and classification of expressive means by G. Leech 1967 “Essays on Style and Language”. He tried to show how linguistic theory could be accommodated to the task of describing such rhetorical figures as metaphor, parallelism, alliteration, personification and others in the present-day study of literature. Literature can be equated with the use of deviant forms of language. The degree of generality of statement about language. There are two particularly important ways in which the description of language entails generalization: I, they, it, him, etc. as objective personal pronouns with the following categories: first/third person, singular/plural, masculine, non-reflexive, animate/inanimate. Although they require many ways of description they are all pronouns and each of them may be explicitly described in this fashion. The other type of generalization is implicit: language and dialect. This sort of description would be composed of individual events of speaking, writing, hearing and reading. “Register scale” and “Dialect scale”. “Register scale” distinguishes spoken language from written language. Dialect scale” differentiates language of people of different age, sex, social strata, geographical area or individual linguistic habits (idiolect). Paradigmatic and syntagmatic deviations. Paradigmatic figures give the writer a choice from equivalent items: inches/feet/yard + away, e. g. He was standing only a few feet away. Paradigmatic deviation in literary and poetic language: farmyards away, a grief ago, all sun long. Personification: grammatical oppositions of personal/impersonal; animate/inanimate; concrete/abstract: As Connie had said, she handled just like any other aeroplane, except that she had better manners than most. (Shute). Syntagmatic deviant features result from the opposite: the author imposes the same kind of choice in the same place: “Robert turned over a hoop in a circle” /“Robert Rowley rolled a round roll round”. I. R. Galperln’s classification of expressive means and stylistic devices 1. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices. 2. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices. 3. Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices. 1. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices: 1) onomatopoeia (direct and indirect): ding-dong; silver bells... tinkle, tinkle; direct – is contained in words that imitate natural sounds: cuckoo, buzz, tintinabulation, mew. Indirect – a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense: “And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain” (E. Poe) 2) alliteration - is a phonetic SD which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance(initial rhyme): to rob Peter to pay Paul; Deep in the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before (E. Poe) 3) rhyme – is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. (full, incomplete, compound or broken, eye rhyme, internal rhyme. Also, stanza rhymes: couplets, triple, cross, framing/ring); The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable, as in might, right; needless, heedless. Incomplete rhymes: 1) vowel rhymes: flesh-fresh-press 2) and consonant rhymes: worth—forth; tale—tool— Treble—trouble; flung - long. Compound or broken rhymes: upon her honour—won her; bottom—forgot’em—shot him. Eye-rhyme: love—prove, flood-brood, have—grave. Rhymes within the stanza: 1. couplets - when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed. This is commonly marked aa. 2. triple rhymes—aaa 3. cross rhymes—abab- 4. framing or ring rhymes—abba 4) Rhythm: necessarily demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low; and other contrasting segments of speech. Rhythm is to be a stylistic category, one thing is required - the simultaneous perception of two contrasting phenomena, a kind of dichotomy. Rhythm in verse as an SD is defined as a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it, variations which are governed by the standard. 2. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices Te interaction of different types of a word’s meanings: dictionary, contextual, derivative, nominal, and emotive. A. Means based on the interplay of dictionary and contextual meanings: metaphor: Dear Nature is the kindest Mother still. (Byron). ‘Speed!” he shouted. And pushed it up to one hundred and five miles an hour and tore the breath out of his mouth (R.D. Bradbury). … but hearing only the scream of the car(R.D. Bradbury). The thunder faded (R.D. Bradbury). metonymy: The camp, the pulpit and the law For rich man’s sons are free. (Shelly) irony: It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket. …Well, c’est la vie, as Eric so originally says. (V. Nabokov. Pnin). B. Means based on the interaction of primary and derivative meanings: polysemy: Massachusetts was hostile to the American flag, and she would not allow it to be hoisted on her State House; zeugma: May’s mother always stood on her gentility, and Dot’s mother never stood on anything but her active little feet. (Dickens) “Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room”. (B. Shaw) The pun: “Bow to the board,” said Bumble. Oliver brushed away two or three tears that were ling/g/erring (сдерживать, удерживать) in his eyes; and seeing no board but the table, fortunately bowed to that’. (Dickens) Puns are often used in riddles and jokes, for example, in this riddle: What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver? (One trains the mind and the other minds the train.) C. Means based on the opposition of logical and emotive meanings: interjections and exclamatory words: All present life is but an interjection An ‘Oh’ or ‘Ah’ of joy or misery, Or a ‘Ha! ha!’ or ‘Bah!’—a yawn or ‘Pooh!’ Of which perhaps the latter is most true. (Byron) Epithet (an adjective or descriptive phrase used to chracterise a person or object with the aim to give them subjective evaluation): a well-matched, fairly-balanced give-and-take (взаимные уступки, компромисс, обмен любезностями) couple. (Dickens). … as he was helping her into her coat and as usual searching with a frown for the fugitive armhole. (V. Nabokov. Pnin). … two monstrous status on primitive eyes of stone…(V. Nabokov. Pnin). Oxymoron (a figure of speech in which opposite or contradictory ideas are combined): peopled desert, populous solitude, proud humility. (Byron) D. Means based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings: Antonomasia (the use of a proper name in place of a common one or vice versa to emphasise some feature or quality): Mr. Facing-Both-Ways does not get very far in this world (The Tunes) II. The principle for distinguishing is based on the interaction between two lexical meanings simultaneously materialised hi the context. simile: treacherous as a snake, faithful as a dog, slow as a tortoise. …morose étagères with bits of dark-looking glass in the back as mouruful as the eyes of old apes (V. Nabokov. Pnin). “Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare” (Byron). … two limpy old ladies in semitransparent rain-coats, like potatoes on cellophane (V. Nabokov, ‘Pnin’) Periphrasis/circumlocution (renaming of an object by a phrase that emphasizes some particular feature of the object): a gentleman of the long robe (a lawyer); the fair sex, (women). … an old inn frequented only by the peaceful sons of traffic (W. Irving). Logical periphrasis: instruments of destruction (Dickens); the most pardonable of human weaknesses (Dickens); the object of his admiration (Dickens); that proportion of the population which... is yet able to read words of more than one syllable, and to read them without perceptible movement of the lips= ‘half-literate’. Figurative periphrasis: ‘the punctual servant of all work’ (Dickens); ‘in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes’ (Shakespeare); ‘to tie the knot’. Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one: In private I should call him a liar. In the Press you should use the words: ‘Reckless disregard for truth’. (Galsworthy). To pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to be gone/ to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to be gone. 1) religious: Father, Mother, Son, children. 2) moral: smock/shift/chemise/combination/step-in; a woman of a certain type; a four-letter word; to glow – to sweat. 3) medical: madhouse – lunatic asylum – mental hospital; idiots, imbeciles, the feeble-minded – low, medium and high-grade mental defectives; insane – person of unsound mind, mentally-ill patients; ; 4) parliamentary: liar – a purveyor of terminological inexactitudes, jackass/goose; dog, rat, swine/halfwit, Tory clot; 5) political: tension – uprising; undernourishment – starvation; capitalists – free enterprises; profit – savings; the building up of labour reserves – unemployment; dismissa/discharge/firing – the reorganization of the enterprise. Hyperbole: The earth was made for Dombey and Son to trade in and the sun and the moon were made to give them light. (Dickens). “He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face.” (O. Henry). III. The subdivision comprises stable word combinations in their interaction with the context: A cliche is an expression that has become hackneyed and trite: clockwork precision, crushing defeat, the whip and carrot policy, rosy dreams of youth, the patter of little feet, deceptively simple, effective guarantees, immediate issues, statement of policy, reliable sources, buffer zone, to grow by leaps and bounds, to with stand the test of time, to let bygones bygones, to be unable to see the wood for the trees, to upset the apple-cart, to have an ace upon one’s sleeve, the patter of the rain, part and parcel, a diamond in the rough. Proverbs and sayings. Typical features: rhythm, sometimes rhyme and/or alliteration. But the most characteristic feature of a proverb or a saying lies not in its formal linguistic expression, but in the content-form of the utterance: brevity+ the actual wording becomes a pattern which needs no new wording to suggest extensions of meaning which are contextual Proverbs are brief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas: To cut one’s coat according to one’s cloth. Early to bed and early to rise, Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. Come! he said, milk’s spilt. (Galsworthy). First come, first served. Out of sight, out of mind. Epigrams. An epigram is a stylistic device akin to a proverb, the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the coinage of the people: Art is triumphant when it can use convention as an instrument of its own purpose. A God that can be understood is no God. A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. (Keats) Quotations: A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter in hand. Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted commas (“ “), dashes (—), italics or other graphical means: Ecclesiastes said, ‘that all is vanity’.(Byron) Allusions: An allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. An allusion is only a mention of a word or phrase which may be regarded as the key-word of the utterance: “Where is the road now, and its merry incidents of life’, old honest, pimple-nosed coachmen? I wonder where are they, those good fellows? Is old Weller alive or dead?” (Thackeray). “Shakespeare talks of the herald Mercury New lighted on a heaven-kissing hill; And some such visions cross’d her majesty While her young herald knelt before her still. ‘Tis very true the hill seem’d rather high, For a lieutenant to climb up; but skill Smooth’d even the Sitnpton’s steep, and by God’s blessing With youth and health all kisses are heaven-kissing.” (Byron) Decomposition of set phrases. The stylistic device of decomposition of fused set phrases consists in reviving the independent meanings which make up the component parts of the fusion. Mind! I don’t mean to say that I know of my own knowledge, what there is particularly dead about a door-nail. (Dickens). You know which side the law’s buttered. (Galsworthy). It was raining cats and dogs, and two kittens and a puppy landed on my window-sill (Chesterton). 3. Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices The principal criteria for classifying syntactical stylistic devices are: — the juxtaposition of the parts of an utterance; — the type of connection of the parts; — the peculiar use of colloquial constructions;
Devices built on the principle of juxtaposition Inversion (several types) - aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance.: A tone of most extravagant comparison A few Tox said it in, (Dickens) Down dropped the breeze. (Colerigde). Basic types of inversion. 1. The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence: “Talent Mr. Micawber /mi’ko:bə/ has; capita! Mr. Micawber has not.” (David Copperfield). 2. The attribute is placed after the word it modifies (postposition of the attribute). This model is often used when there is more than one attribute, for example: “With fingers weary and worn...” (Thomas Hood); “Once upon a midnight dreary” (E. A. Poe) 3. a) The predicative is placed before the subject, as in “A good generous prayer it was.” (Mark Twain) b) the predicative stands before the link-verb and both are placed before the subject, as in “Rude am I in my speech...” (Shakespeare) 4. The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence, as in: “Eagerly I wished the morrow.” (Poe) “My dearest daughter, at your feet I fall.” (Dryden) A tone of most extraordinary comparison Miss Tox said it in.” (Dickens) 5. Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject, as in: “In went Mr. Pickwick.” (Dickens) “Down dropped the breeze...” (Coleridge). Detached constructions - sometimes one of the secondary parts of a sentence by some specific consideration of the writer is placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to: She was lovely: all of her-delightful. (Dreiser). Steyne rose up, grinding his teeth, pale, and with fury in his eyes. (Thackeray) Sir Pitt came in first, very much flushed, and rather unsteady in his gait. (Thackeray). Parenthesis - is a qualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause, sentence, or other sequence which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it, having often a characteristic intonation and indicated in writing by commas, brackets or dashes. Parallel constructions: The seeds ye sow—another reaps, The robes ye weave—another wears The arms ye forge—another bean (Shelley). Parallel construction’s device which may be encountered not so much in the sentence as in the macro-structures dealt with earlier, viz. the SPU(Supra-Phrasal Unit) and the paragraph. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical, or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession, as in: There were, .... real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in. (Dickens). Parallel constructions may be |
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