«Английский язык»
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Taking a Closer Look II. Answer the following questions.
III. Study the following words and expressions and make your own sentences using them. To refer to, interactions, distinct, mutual concern, an ongoing debate, entity, means of subsistence, to follow a route, pass through stages, division of labor, widespread availability, transition, correspondingly, disintegration, human beings, origins, relatively, emergence, to share common culture. IV. Give English equivalents for the following words and word combinations. Проводить различие, существовать в обществе противоречащие друг другу мировоззрения, проходить стадии, значение слова происходит от, иметь общие интересы, преобладающее значение, выделить, общая цель, средства существования, охотники-собиратели, сфера услуг, противопоставлять общества, социальное развитие, век информационных технологий, в противоположность чему-либо, обозначать что-либо, развитая иерархия, причина неуверенности, род деятельности, доступность электроэнергии, современное состояние общества, возможности коммерческого развития. V. Use the words listed below to fill the gap.
Ranging, systems, hierarchical, poor, contemporary, focusing, structure, turns, economic, within, dimensions, additional, occupational, income, terms. VI. Translate the following sentences into English. 1. Социальные изменения — это переход социальных систем, общностей, институтов и организаций из одного состояния в другое. Это различие между нынешним и предшествующим состоянием какого-либо избранного аспекта социальной организации или структуры. 2. Социальное развитие — это не всякое движение и не любое социальное изменение, это такое изменение, которое ведёт к появлению новых общественных отношений, институтов, норм и ценностей. Понятие «развитие» уточняется такими понятиями, как социальный прогресс и социальный регресс. 3. Социальный прогресс характеризуется положительными последствиями, означает движение от низшего к высшему, от простого к сложному. Это особый тип развития общества, при котором общество в целом или отдельные его элементы переходят на более высокую ступень, стадию зрелости в соответствии с объективными критериями. 4. Противоположным прогрессу является понятие «регресс», т.е. движение социальных систем по нисходящей линии от более развитых к менее развитым. Оно связано с негативными изменениями в обществе, которые ограничивают возможности общества к саморазвитию, адаптации. Примерами регресса являются увеличение числа неграмотных людей, падение производства, рост нищеты и т.д. Кроме своей направленности регресс отличается от прогресса и тем, что он обычно охватывает не все общества, а какой-то элемент или сферу общества. 5. Формы социальных изменений в зависимости от их характера бывают двух видов: революционные и эволюционные. 6. Революция — это комплексное изменение всех сторон общественной жизни, преобразующее основы существующего строя. Революции носят скачкообразный характер и представляют собой форму перехода общества из одного качественного состояния в другое. 7. Революции называются социальными, если они касаются преобразований в тех сферах общественной жизни, которые непосредственно связаны с людьми, отражаются на их образе жизни, доступе к социальным благам. Субъектами революций являются широкие народные массы. 8. Эволюция — это способ постепенных количественных изменений, которые подготавливают качественные изменения. Наиболее типичной формой эволюции является реформа. 9. Реформы — это частичные усовершенствования каких-либо сфер общественной жизни, ряд постепенных преобразований, не затрагивающих основ существующего социального строя. Реформа не посягает на основы социального строя, а изменяет те или иные стороны общества в рамках установленного порядка. По этой причине реформы осуществляются мирными средствами. Тема 6. CLASSICAL VIEWS ON SOCIAL CHANGE I. Read and translate the text. As Western societies transitioned from pre-industrial economies based primarily on agriculture to industrialized societies in the 19th century, some people worried about the impacts such changes would have, on society and individuals. Three early sociologists, Weber, Marx, and Durkheim, perceived different impacts of the Industrial Revolution on the individual and society and described those impacts in their work. Weber and Rationalization. Max Weber was particularly concerned about the rationalization and bureaucratization of society stemming from the Industrial Revolution and how these two changes would affect humanity's agency and happiness. As Weber understood society, particularly during the industrial revolution of the late 19th century in which he lived, he believed society was being driven by the passage of rational ideas into culture which, in turn, transformed society into an increasingly bureaucratic entity. Bureaucracy is a type of organizational or institutional management that is, as Weber understood it, rooted legal-rational authority. Weber did believe bureaucracy was the most rational form of societal management, but because Weber viewed rationalization as the driving force of society, he believed bureaucracy would increase until it ruled society. Society, for Weber, would become almost synonymous with bureaucracy. As Weber did not see any alternative to bureaucracy, he believed it would ultimately lead to an iron cage; society would bureaucratize and there would be no way to get out of it. Weber viewed this as a bleak outcome that would affect individuals' happiness as they would be forced to function in a highly rational society with rigid rules and norms without the possibility to change it. Because Weber could not envision other forces influencing the ultimate direction of society — the exception being temporary lapses into non-bureaucracy spurred by charismatic leaders — he saw no cure for the iron cage of rationality. Society would become a large bureaucracy that would govern people's lives. Weber was unable to envision a solution to his iron cage of bureaucracy dilemma; since a completely rational society was inevitable and bureaucracy was the most rational form of societal management, the iron cage, according to Weber, does not have a solution. Marx and Alienation. Karl Marx took a different perspective on the impact of the Industrial Revolution on society and the individual. In order to understand Marx's perspective, however, it is necessary to understand how Marx perceived happiness. According to Marx, species being (or happiness) is the pinnacle of human nature. Species being is understood to be a type of self-realization or self-actualization brought about by meaningful work. But in addition to engaging in meaningful work, self-actualized individuals must also own the products of their labors and have the option of doing what they will with those products. In a capitalist society, which was co-developing with industry, rather than owning the fruits of their labors, the proletariat or working class owns only their labor power, not the fruits of their labors (i.e., the results of production). The capitalists or bourgeoisie employ the proletariat for a living wage, but then keep the products of the labor. As a result, the proletariat is alienated from the fruits of its labor — they do not own the products they produce, only their labor power. Because Marx believed species being to be the goal and ideal of human nature and that species being could only be realized when individuals owned the results of their labors, Marx saw capitalism as leading toward increasingly unhappy individuals; they would be alienated from the results of their production and therefore would not be self-realized. But the alienation from the results of their production is just one component of the alienation Marx proposed. In addition to the alienation from the results of production, the proletariat is also alienated from each other under capitalism. Capitalists alienate the proletariat from each other by forcing them to compete for limited job opportunities. Job opportunities are limited under capitalism in order for capitalists to keep wages down; without a pool of extraneous workers, capitalists would have to meet the wage demands of their workers. Because they are forced to compete with other members of the proletariat, workers are alienated from each other, compounding the unhappiness of the proletariat. While Marx did have a solution to the problem of alienation, he seldom discussed it in detail. Marx's proposed solution was for the proletariat to unite and through protests or revolution (or legislation in democratic nations) overthrow the bourgeoisie and institute a new form of government — communism. This form of government would be based on communally owned and highly developed means of production and self-governance. The means of production would be developed — through capitalism — to the point that everyone in society would have sufficient “free” time to allow them to participate in whatever governmental decisions needed to be made for the community as a whole. By re-connecting the individual with the fruits of their labor and empowering them toward true self-governance, species being would be realized and happiness would be returned. Two additional comments are in order here. First, the communism that developed in The Soviet Union and China — as well as other parts of the world — was not the communism envisioned by Marx. These forms of communism still had stratified hierarchies with two groups: a ruling elite and everybody else. Second, Marx believed capitalism, while harmful to species being, was necessary to advance the means of production to a stage where communism (as he envisioned it) could be realized. Thus, while Marx was highly critical of capitalism, he also recognized its utility in developing the means of production. Durkheim and Solidarity. Durkheim's view of society and the changes it was undergoing as a result of industrialization also led him to believe unhappiness was a possible outcome. Durkheim believed that an important component of social life was social solidarity, which is understood as a sense of community. In his classic study, Suicide, Durkheim argued that one of the root causes of suicide was a decrease in social solidarity — termed anomie (French for chaos) by Durkheim. Durkheim also argued that the increasing emphasis on individualism found in Protestant religions — in contrast to Catholicism — contributed to an increase in anomie, which resulted in higher suicide rates among Protestants. In another work, The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim proposed that pre-industrial societies maintained their social solidarity through a mechanistic sense of community and through their religious affiliations. Most people were generalists in their work — they farmed and created their own tools and clothing. Because they were alike in their generality, they were also more likely to share a sense of community, which Durkheim saw as an important component of happiness. In addition to their similarity in occupations, many individuals belonged to the same religious groups, which also fostered a sense of solidarity. In industrializing societies, Durkheim recognized the inevitability of specialization. By definition, specialization means that individuals are going to have dissimilar occupations. This specialization would also affect religion. In industrial societies, religion would become just one aspect of lives that were increasingly divided into compartments — home, family, work, recreation, religion, etc. Durkheim believed there were two components that would alleviate the decreasing social solidarity in industrializing societies: organic solidarity and conscientious attempts to find camaraderie through one's place of employ. Whereas social solidarity was maintained in pre-industrial societies through a mechanistic sense of similarity and dependence along with communal religious affiliations, in industrialized societies, social solidarity would be maintained by the interdependence of specialists on one another. If one individual specialized in treating the injured or ill, they would not have time to raise crops or otherwise produce food. Doctors would become dependent on farmers for their food while farmers would become dependent on doctors for their healthcare. This would force a type of organic solidarity — organic in the sense that the parts were interdependent like the organs of an animal are interdependent for their survival. In addition to the inevitable interdependence a specialized society would warrant, Durkheim believed that a conscientious effort to develop and foster friendships would transition from a religious brotherhood to friendships developed at one's place of employment. Specialized individuals would have a great deal in common with their co-workers and, like members of the same religious congregations in рге-industrial societies, co-workers would be able to develop strong bonds of social solidarity through their occupations. Thus, for Durkheim, the answer to the decrease in mechanistic solidarity and the increasing anomie was organic solidarity and solidarity pursued within one's specialty occupation. Taking a Closer Look II. Answer the following questions.
III. Find the following words and expressions in the text and translate them into Russian: to transition, to perceive, to be concerned about, legal-rational authority, driving force, ultimately, to envision a solution, a different perspective, labor power, a living wage, to be alienated from smth, self-actualization, species being, to overthrow the bourgeoisie, self-governance, to empower, religious affiliation, conscientious attempts. IV. Give English equivalents for the following words and word combinations: влияние изменений на общество, переход, в свою очередь, рациональная форма управления обществом, иметь много общего, таким образом, править, быть вынужденным, временный, другая точка зрения, заниматься значимой работой, буржуазия, форма правления, средства производства, соперничать, взаимозависимость, неизбежность, самоуправление, брать свое начало, с помощью законодательства, быть отчужденным от, владеть результатами труда, харизматический лидер, строгие правила и нормы, способ избавиться от чего-либо, движущая сила, бюрократия. V. Fill the gaps with the words listed below.
Culture, distributed, involves, basis, innovation, changes, consists, human, experienced, industrialized, according to, consequences, relatively. VI. Translate the following passage into English. Значительное влияние на развитие социологии оказал марксизм, разработавший цельную теорию, объясняющую развитие общества с материалистических позиций. Марксизм соединил материализм с диалектическим методом. Социальная теория Маркса, созданная на основе диалектико-материалистического метода, получила название исторического материализма. По Марксу, основой общественного прогресса является развитие материального производства. Именно оно обусловливает существование всех других составляющих общественного бытия. Маркс ввел в социологию понятие общественно-экономической формации (ОЭФ), обозначающее общественный строй, в основе которого лежит определенный способ производства. Способ производства состоит из производительных сил и производственных отношений. Производственные отношения и должны, по Марксу, составлять главный объект изучения общественных наук. Маркс развил классовую теорию, созданную французскими историками и английскими политэкономами в конце XVIII — начале XIX в., соединив ее со своей теорией прибавочной стоимости. Марксизм стал теоретическим обоснованием классовой борьбы пролетариата против буржуазии. Тема 7. SOCIALIZATION I. Read and translate the text. Socialization generally refers to the process in which people learn the skills, knowledge, values, motives, and roles (i.e., culture) of the groups to which they belong or the communities in which they live. In other words, socialization is the process of creating and incorporating new members of a group from a pool of newcomers, carried out by members and their allies. It should be pointed out that socialization includes two components. The first component of socialization is the process, mentioned above, that leads to the adoption of culture. The second component is the outcome of the process, for example, “Was the socialization successful?” or “He has been socialized to believe God exists.” Socialization is seen as society's principal mechanism for influencing the development of character and behavior. Most sociologists treat socialization as a cornerstone both for the maintenance of society and for the well-being of the individual. The three goals of socialization are: 1) impulse control and the development of a conscience; 2) role preparation and performance, including occupational roles, gender roles, and roles in institutions such as marriage and parenthood; 3) the cultivation of sources of meaning, or what is important, valued, and to be lived for. In short, socialization is the process that prepares humans to function in social life. It should be re-iterated here that socialization is culturally relative — people in different cultures are socialized differently. This distinction does not and should not inherently force an evaluative judgment. Socialization, because it is the adoption of culture, is going to be different in every culture. Socialization, as both process or an outcome, is not better or worse in any particular culture. Primary and Secondary Socialization. Socialization is a life process, but is generally divided into two parts. Primary socialization takes place early in life, as a child and adolescent. Secondary socialization refers to the socialization that takes place throughout one’s life, both as a child and as one encounters new groups that require additional socialization. While there are scholars who argue that only one or the other of these occurs, most social scientists tend to combine the two, arguing that the basic or core identity of the individual develops during primary socialization, with more specific changes occurring later — secondary socialization — in response to the acquisition of new group memberships and roles and differently structured social situations. The need for later life socialization may stem from the increasing complexity of society with its corresponding increase in varied roles and responsibilities. There are three specific ways these two parts of socialization differ. Content; Socialization in childhood is thought to be concerned with the regulation of biological drives. In adolescence, socialization is concerned with the development of overarching values and the self-image. In adulthood, socialization involves more overt and specific norms and behaviors, such as those related to the work role as well as more superficial personality features. Context: In earlier periods, the socializee (the person being socialized) more clearly assumes the status of learner within the context of the family of orientation, the school, or the peer group. Also, relationships in the earlier period are more likely to be affectively charged, i.e., highly emotional. In adulthood, though the socializee takes the role of student at times, much socialization occurs after the socializee has assumed full incumbency of the adult role. There is also a greater likelihood of more formal relationships due to situational contexts (e.g., work environment), which moderates down the affective component. Response: The child and adolescent may be more easily malleable than the adult. Also, much adult socialization is self-initiated and voluntary; adults can leave or terminate the process at any time. Socialization is, of course, a social process. As such, it involves interactions between people. Socialization, as noted in the distinction between primary and secondary, can take place in multiple contexts and as a result of contact with numerous groups. Some of the more significant contributors to the socialization process are: parents, friends, schools, siblings, and co-workers. Each of these groups include a culture that must be learned and to some degree appropriated by the socializee in order to gain admittance to the group. Total Institutions. Not all socialization is voluntary nor is all socialization successful. There are components of society designed specifically to resocialize individuals who were not successfully socialized to begin with. For instance, prisons and mental health institutions are designed to resocialize the people who are deemed to have not been successfully socialized. Depending on the degree of isolation and resocialization that takes place in a given institution, some of these institutions are labeled total institutions. The most common examples of total institutions include mental hospitals, prisons, and military boot camps, though there are numerous other institutions that could be considered total institutions as well. The goal of total institutions is to facilitate a complete break with one's old life in order for the institution to resocialize the individual into a new life. Taking a Closer Look II. Answer the following questions.
III. Find the following words and expressions in the text and translate them into Russian: to incorporate members, adolescence, allies, outcome, to treat smth, a peer group, cornerstone, conscience, role performance, personality features, evaluative judgment, to encounter a group, core identity, to stem from, corresponding increase, to appropriate, overarching values, to gain admittance, incumbency, to resocialize, due to, situational context, to moderate down. IV. Give English equivalents for the following words and word combinations: цели социализации, включать новых членов, иначе говоря, следует подчеркнуть, вышеупомянутый, влиять на развитие характера, благополучие человека, принятие культуры, камень преткновения, союзники, воспитание, в течение жизни, первичная и вторичная социализация, приобретение ролей, ученые утверждают, соответствующий, зрелый возраст, юность, большая вероятность чего-либо, добровольный, быть принятым в группу, в зависимости от чего-либо, многочисленные группы, обусловленный чем-либо, брать на себя роль, группа сверстников. V. Fill the gaps with the words listed below. Every society has its own characteristic ... toward past, present and future, and it is clearly ... in the way the society prepares its young for adulthood. In stagnant societies, the past crept forward into the present and ... itself in the future. In such a society, the most ... way to prepare a child was ... him with the skills of the past — for these were precisely the same ... he would need in the future. “With the ancient is wisdom,” the Bible admonishes. Thus father handed down to son all sorts of practical... along with a clearly..., highly traditional set of... Knowledge was ... not by specialists concentrated in schools but ...the family, religious..., and apprenticeships. The mechanical age smashed all this, for industrialism ... a new kind of man. It demanded skills that neither family nor... could, by themselves, provide. Mass... was the ingenious machine constructed by ... to produce the kind of ... it needed. Adults, church, attitude, sensible, skills, repeated, techniques, reflected, institutions, required, industrialism, values, defined/to arm, education, transmitted, through. VI. Translate the following sentences into English.
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