Учебное пособие для студентов омо иф по теме «Судебная система сша»
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Апелляционные суды и федеральные окружные судыВторой уровень после Верховного суда занимают в судебной системе США апелляционные суды, созданные в 1891 г. с целью содействия разрешению дел и частичному освобождению Верховного суда от его огромной нагрузки. Конгресс учредил 12 региональных окружных апелляционных судов и Апелляционный суд США по федеральному округу. Число судей, заседающих в каждом из этих судов, подвержено большим колебаниям (от 6 до 28) в зависимости от конкретного суда. Однако в большинстве выездных судебных сессий число судей составляет от 10 до 15. Апелляционные суды пересматривают решения федеральных окружных судов (федеральных судов второй инстанции) на территории своей юрисдикции. Они также наделены полномочиями пересматривать распоряжения независимых регулирующих органов в тех случаях, когда внутренние механизмы этих органов по пересмотру дел уже исчерпали себя и имеются существенные разногласия по правовым вопросам. Кроме того, Апелляционный суд США по федеральному округу обладает юрисдикцией по всей стране в плане рассмотрения апелляционных жалоб по узко специальным делам, связанным с патентным правом, а также делам, решения по которым принимаются судами специальной юрисдикции, Федеральным судом по вопросам международной торговли и Федеральным претензионным судом. Следующей более низкой инстанцией являются федеральные окружные суды. Пятьдесят штатов и территории США разделяются на 94 судебных округа, с тем чтобы тяжущимся сторонам легко было добираться до места судебного разбирательства своего дела. В каждом окружном суде имеется не менее двух судей. Есть немало судебных округов с большой численностью населения, в которых число судей превышает 24. В зависимости от имеющейся нагрузки по рассмотрению дел судья из одного судебного округа может временно работать в другом. Конгресс устанавливает границы подобных судебных округов в соответствии с численностью населения, территорией и объемом работы. Некоторые из маленьких штатов сами являются таким судебным округом, в то время как в каждом из больших штатов, включая Нью-Йорк, Калифорнию и Техас, имеются по четыре судебных округа. Судьи должны проживать в том судебном округе, в котором они постоянно работают. Исключение составляет Федеральный округ Колумбия. Окружные суды периодически проводят сессии в различных городах округа. Большинство дел и правовых споров, разрешаемых этими судами, касаются преступлений по федеральному уголовному праву и федеральных правонарушений, таких как ненадлежащее использование почтовых отправлений, кража федерального имущества, нарушение законов о чистоте пищевых продуктов, несоблюдение банковского законодательства, фальшивомонетчество и контрафакция. Это единственные федеральные суды, в которых большие жюри обвиняют по обвинительному акту тех, кто совершил преступления по общему праву, а присяжные выносят решение по делу. В каждом судебном округе есть также суд по делам о несостоятельности, поскольку Конгресс принял решение о том, что дела о банкротстве должны решаться в федеральных судах, а не в судах штатов. Согласно процедуре банкротства отдельные лица или предприятия, оказавшиеся не в состоянии выплачивать долги кредиторам, могут добиваться ликвидации своих активов под надзором суда или упорядочить свои финансовые дела и разработать план погашения имеющихся у них долгов. Part II Unit 5 The Supreme Court  West façade of the Supreme Court Building. The Supreme Court stands at the top of the American legal system. Article III of the Constitution created the Supreme Court as part of a coequal branch of the national government, along with Congress and the President. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort in all questions of federal law. It has final authority in any case involving the Constitution, acts of Congress, and treaties with other nations. Most of the cases the Supreme Court hears are appeals from lower courts. The decisions of the Supreme Court are binding on all lower courts. Nomination to the Supreme Court today is a very high honor. It was not always so Several of George Washington's nominees turned down the job. Until 1891 justices earned much of their pay while riding the circuit or traveling to hold court in their assigned regions of the country. Today the Court hears all its cases in the Supreme Court building in Washington, D.C., in a large first-floor courtroom that is open to the public. Nearby is a conference room where the justices meet privately to decide cases. The first floor also contains the offices of the justices, their law clerks, and secretaries. Supreme Court Jurisdiction The Supreme Court has both original and appellate jurisdiction. Article III, Section 2, of the Constitution sets the Court's original jurisdiction. It covers two types of cases: (I) cases involving representatives of foreign governments (2) certain cases in which a state is a party. Congress may not expand or curtail the Court's original jurisdiction. Many cases have involved two states or a state and the federal government. When Maryland and Virginia argued over oyster fishing rights, and when a dispute broke out between California and Arizona over the control of water from the Colorado River, the Supreme Court had original jurisdiction. The Supreme Court's original jurisdiction cases form a very small part of its yearly workload — an average of fewer than five such cases a year. Most of the cases the Court decides fall under the Court's appellate jurisdiction. Under the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction, the Court hears cases that are appealed from lower courts of appeals, or it may hear cases from federal district courts in certain instances where an act of Congress was held unconstitutional. The Supreme Court may also hear cases that are appealed from the highest court of a state, if claims under federal law or the Constitution are involved. In such cases, however, the Supreme Court has the authority to rule only on the federal issue involved, not on any issues of state law. A state court, for example, tries a person charged with violating a state law. During the trial, however, the accused claims that the police violated Fourteenth Amendment rights with an illegal search at the time of the arrest. The defendant may appeal to the Supreme Court on the constitutional issue only. The Supreme Court has no jurisdiction to rule on the state issue (whether the accused actually violated state law). The Court will decide only whether Fourteenth Amendment rights were violated. How Cases Reach the Court Congress sets very complex rules for appealing a case to the Supreme Court. A few cases start at the Court because they fall under its original jurisdiction. The vast majority of cases reach the Court only as appeals from lower court decisions. These cases come to the Supreme Court in one of two ways—on appeal or by writ of certiorari. On Appeal Certain types of cases are said to go to the Court on appeal. Most are cases in which a lower federal court or the highest state court has ruled a law unconstitutional. Some are cases in which the highest court of a state upholds a state law against the claim that it violates federal law or the Constitution. The Court is required to at least consider all cases involving the constitutionality of a law. Only about 10 percent of the Court's cases arrive on appeal, and most are dismissed because they do not raise an important constitutional issue. When a case is dismissed, the decision of the lower court becomes final. Dismissal also has other legal consequences. Lower court judges are supposed to note that the Court believes similar types of cases do not involve a basic conflict with federal laws or the Constitution. Writ of Certiorari The main route to the Supreme Court is by a writ of certiorari (suhr●shee●uh●RAR●ee) — an order from the Court to a lower court to send up the records on a case for review. Either side in a case may petition the Court for certiorari, or "cert," as lawyers call it. Such petitions must argue that the lower court made a legal error in handling the case, or they must raise some serious constitutional issue. Because these appeals do not involve the constitutionality of a law, the Court is free to choose which cases it will consider. More than 90 percent of the requests for certiorari are rejected. Denial of certiorari does not necessarily mean that the justices agree with a lower court's decision. They may see the case as not involving a significant public issue. It may involve a question the Court does not want to address, or it may not be the best case for ruling on a specific issue. Regardless of the reason, when the Court denies certiorari, the lower court's decision stands. Selecting Cases Justice William O. Douglas once railed the selection of cases "in many respects the most important and interesting of all our functions." When petitions for certiorari come to the Court, the justices' clerks identify cases worthy of serious consideration and the Chief Justice puts them on a "discuss list" for the justices to consider. All other cases are automatically denied a writ unless a justice asks that a specific case be added to the list. Almost two-thirds of all petitions for certiorari never make the discuss list. At the Court conferences, the Chief Justice reviews the cases on the discuss list. Then the justices—armed with memos from their clerks, other information on the case, and various law books — give their views. In deciding to accept a case, the Court operates by the rule of four. If four of the nine justices approve, the Court will accept the case for decision. When the justices accept a case, they also decide either to ask for more information and oral arguments from the opposing lawyers or to rule quickly on the basis of written materials already available. Cases decided without further information are announced with a per curiam (puhr KYTJR●ee●ahm) opinion — a brief unsigned statement of the Court's decision. Slightly less than half the cases the Court accepts are handled this way. The remaining cases go on for full consideration by the Court. Vocabulary coequal– равный court of last resort - суд последней инстанции along with - наряду с final authority - окончательное судебное решение nomination - а) назначение (на должность) б) право назначения, выставления кандидата (при выборах на должность) to turn down - отвергать (предложение) ; отказывать (кому-л.) to break out – вспыхивать workload - объем работы, нагрузка to fall under - подпадать под (какую-л. категорию и т. п.) , быть классифицированным illegal search - незаконный обыск writ of certiorari - приказ об истребовании дела (из нижестоящего суда в вышестоящий суд) the constitutionality of the law - соответствие закона конституции to dismiss - a) прекращать дело б) отклонять исковое заявление dismissal – а) прекращение (дела) б) отклонение (иска) legal consequence - правовое последствие, судебное заключение petition – 1. (n) петиция; прошение, ходатайство 2. (verb) обращаться с петицией; подавать прошение, ходатайствовать handling - а) обращение (с чем-л.); б) трактовка; подход (к решению вопросов и т. п.) to rail - жаловаться, сетовать writ - предписание, повестка; исковое заявление, судебный приказ to arm with - вооружаться, запасать(ся); обладать memo = memorandum - служебная записка, докладная записка oral argument – выступление в суде per curiam opinion - решение суда Exercises: Ex 1 Answer the following questions
Ex. 2 Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations: top of the American legal system - a coequal branch of the national government – to turn down the job - to hold court in the assigned regions - cases involving representatives of foreign governments - certain cases in which a state is a party – to break out a dispute – to fall under the Court's appellate jurisdiction – to tries a person charged with violating a state law - an illegal search – to rule a law unconstitutional - the constitutionality of a law - a writ of certiorari - a per curiam opinion Ex. 3 Give English equivalents for the following words: окончательное судебное решение - суд последней инстанции - рассмвтривать апелляции из ниже стоящих судов – отказываться от работы - подпадать под первичную юрисдикцию – составлять лишь небольшую часть ежегодной нагрузки – проводить заседание суда в закрепленных районах - решение суда – незаконный обыск - соответствие закона конституции - подавать прошение - приказ об истребовании дела - исковое заявление - выступление в суде - судебное заключение Ex.4 Make up 6 sentences of your own with the words and phrases from exercises 2 and 3. Ex. 5 Supply the word or the word combination from the text which is a periphrasis of the following
Ex.6 Read and translate Steps in Deciding Major Сases The Supreme Court follows a set procedure in hearing important cases. Much of this activity goes on behind the scenes, with only a small part taking place in an open courtroom. 1. Submitting Briefs After the Court accepts a case, the lawyers on each side submit a brief. A brief is a written statement setting forth the legal arguments, relevant facts, and precedents supporting their side of the case. Briefs are often hundreds of pages long. Parties not directly involved in the case, but who have an interest in its outcome, may also submit written briefs. Called amicus curiae1—or "friend of the court"—briefs, they come from individuals, interest groups, or government agencies claiming to have information useful to the Court's consideration of the case. In a recent major civil rights case, 53 amicus curiae briefs were filed—37 for one side and 16 for the other. Amicus curiae briefs are a gentle way of lobbying, or trying to influence, the Court. Sometimes the briefs present new ideas or information. More often, however, they are most useful for indicating which interest groups are on either side of an issue. 2. Oral Arguments After briefs are filed, a lawyer for each side is asked to present an oral argument before the Court. Each side is allowed 30 minutes to summarize the key points of its case. Justices often interrupt the lawyer during his or her oral presentation, sometimes challenging a statement or asking for further information. The lawyer speaks from a lectern that has a red light and a white light. The white light flashes five minutes before the lawyer's time is up. When the red light comes on, the lawyer must stop instantly, even in the middle of a sentence. 3. The Conference On Fridays the justices meet in conference to discuss die cases they have heard. The nine justices come into the conference room and, by tradition, each shakes hands with the other eight. Everyone else leaves. Then one of the most secret meetings in Washington, D.C., begins. For the next six to eight hours, the justices debate the cases. No meeting minutes are kept. The Chief Justice presides over the discussion of each case and usually begins by summarizing the facts of the case and offering recommendations for handling it. The Chief Justice then asks each associate justice to give his or her views and conclusions. Each justice's vote carries the same weight. Traditionally, the justices have voted in reverse order of seniority. In recent years, however, they often have not bothered to take a formal vote because they have already expressed their positions during the discussion. The Chief Justice's vote is no more important than that of any of the other Court members. A majority of justices must be in agreement to decide a case, and at least six justices must be present for a decision. If a tie occurs, the lower court decision is left standing. The Court's vote at this stage, however is not necessarily final. 4. Writing the Opinion For major cases the Court issues at least one written opinion. The opinion states the facts of the case, announces the Court's ruling, and explains its reasoning in reaching the decision. These opinions are as important as the decision itself. Not only do they set a precedent for lower courts in future cases, they also are the Court's way to communicate with Congress, the President, interest groups, and the public. The Court issues four kinds of opinions. In a unanimous opinion, all justices vote the same way. About one-third of the Court's decisions are unanimous. A majority opinion expresses the views of the majority on a case. One or more justices who agree with the majority's conclusions about a case but do so for different reasons write a concurring opinion. A dissenting opinion is the opinion of justices on the losing side in a case. Because the Court does change its mind on issues, a dissenting opinion may even become the majority opinion on a similar issue many years later. If the Chief Justice has voted with the majority on a case, he or she assigns someone in the majority to write the opinion. When the Chief Justice is in the minority, the most senior associate justice among the majority assigns one of the justices on that side of the case to write the majority opinion. Public policy established from a case may depend in large part on who writes the opinion. Fог this reason Chief Justices often assign opinions in very important cases to themselves or to a justice whose views on the case are similar to their own. Unit 6 Supreme Court Justices  Members of the Supreme Court sit for a group portrait at the Supreme Court in Washington in this March 3, 2006 The Supreme Court is composed of 9 justices: the Chief Justice of the United States and 8 associate justices. Congress sets this number and has the power to change it. Over the years it has varied from 5 to 10, but has been 9 since 1869. In 1937 President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to gain greater control of the Court by asking Congress to increase the number of justices. Congress refused, in part because the number 9 was well established. Under the Constitution Congress may remove Supreme Court justices, like other federal officials, through impeachment for and conviction of "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors." No Supreme Court justice has ever been removed from office through impeachment, however. The House of Representatives impeached Justice Samuel Chase in 1804 because of his participation in partisan political activities, but the Senate found him not guilty. Duties of the Justices The Constitution does not describe the duties of the justices. Instead, the duties have developed from laws and through tradition. The main duty of the justices is to hear and rule on cases. This involves them in three decision-making tasks: deciding which cases to hear from among the thousands appealed to the Court each year; deciding the case itself; and determining an explanation for the decision, called the Court opinion. The Chief Justice has several additional duties such as presiding over sessions and conferences at which the cases are discussed. The Chief Justice also exercises leadership in the Court's judicial work and helps administer the federal court system. All the justices also have limited duties related to the 12 federal judicial circuits. One Supreme Court justice is assigned to each of these federal circuits. Two of the justices handle 2 circuits each. The justices are responsible for dealing with requests for special legal actions that come from their circuit. In 1980, for example, a lower federal court ruled against the federal government's program of draft registration. Lawyers for the federal government then requested the Supreme Court to temporarily set aside the lower court's decision. The Supreme Court justice who was responsible for the federal judicial circuit in which the issue arose heard this request. Infrequently, justices take on additional duties. In 1945 Justice Robert Jackson served as chief prosecutor at the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals. In 1963 Chief Justice Earl Warren headed a special commission that investigated the assassination of President Kennedy. Justices limit such external activities because of the Court's heavy workload. To maintain their objectivity on the bench, justices are careful not to become involved in outside activities that might prevent them from dealing fairly with one side or the other on a case. If justices have any personal or business connection with either of the parties in a case, they usually disqualify themselves from participating in that case. Law Clerks In 1882 Justice Horace Gray hired the first law clerk—mainly to be his servant and barber. Today the Court's law clerks assist the justices with many tasks, enabling the justices to concentrate on their pressing duties. Law clerks read all the appeals filed with the Court and write memos summarizing the key issues in each case. When cases are decided, the clerks help prepare the Court's opinions by doing research and sometimes writing first drafts of the opinions. The justices each hire a few law clerks from among the top graduates of the nation's best law schools. These young men and women usually work for a justice for one or two years. After leaving the Court, many clerks go on to distinguished careers as judges, law professors, and even Supreme Court justices themselves. Tenure The Constitution provides that Justices "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior" (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior" is interpreted to mean that the Justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, although this is not compulsory as they may resign or retire voluntarily. A Justice may also be removed by impeachment and conviction by congressional vote, but only one Justice has ever been impeached by the House (Samuel Chase, in 1805) and he was acquitted by the Senate, making impeachment as a restraint on the court something of a paper tiger. Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, once in 1953 and once in 1970), but they have not even reached a vote in the House. Because Justices have indefinite tenure, it is impossible to predict when a vacancy will next occur. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Powell and William H. Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other because of health problems and died shortly thereafter. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer's nomination in 1994 and the departures of Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justice O'Connor (by death and retirement, respectively) in 2005. Despite the variability, all but four Presidents so far have been able to appoint at least one Justice. The exceptions are William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Andrew Johnson, and Jimmy Carter. Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Taylor likewise died early in his presidential term and an appointment was made before the term ended by Millard Fillmore. Johnson succeeded the assassinated Lincoln, and he was denied the opportunity to appoint a Justice by congressional action. Carter is the only president to serve a full term without the opportunity to appoint at least one Justice. Current membership ( table №3) As of 2008, the average age of the U.S. Supreme Court justices is 68 years. Retired justices ( table №4) Research suggests that justices sometimes strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench, with personal, institutional, and partisan factors playing a role. The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the Court's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the Court is in recess, and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, if at all possible, justices seek to depart under favorable presidents and Senates to ensure that a like-minded successor will be appointed. Currently, there is only one retired Justice of the Supreme Court, Sandra Day O'Connor, who announced her intent to retire in 2005 and was replaced by Samuel Alito in 2006. As a retired Justice, Justice O'Connor may be, and has been, designated for temporary assignments to sit with several United States Courts of Appeals. Nominally, such assignments are made by the Chief Justice; they are analogous to the types of assignments that may be given to judges of lower courts who have elected senior status, except that a retired Supreme Court Justice never sits as a member of the Supreme Court itself. Vocabulary associate justice - член суда to gain control - получать, приобретать контроль impeachment - обвинение и привлечение к суду (особ. за государственное преступление) ; импичмент reason -1) измена, предательство Syn: treachery , faithlessness 2) государственная измена (тж. high treason) bribery –взяточничество high crimes and misdemeanors -серьезные преступления и правонарушения (Конституционная формула, охватывающая нарушения закона, дающие основание Палате представителей для импичмента президента, вице-президента и любого гражданского должностного лица США, а также для утверждения этого решения Сенатом). to remove from office - смещать, увольнять, освобождать от обязанностей court opinion - мотивированное судебное решение to preside over session - председательствовать на судебном заседании judicial circuit - судебный округ legal action - 1) правовое действие 2) судебное дело, судебный процесс infrequently - иногда, редко chief prosecutor - главный обвинитель war criminal - военный преступник to investigate an assassination – расследовать убийство bench - место, где сидят судьи, суд (любой, от присяжных до военно-полевого) ; судьи to file - обращаться (с заявлением, прошением), подавать какой-л. Документ tenure - срок пребывания (в должности) to hold office - занимать пост/должность good behaviour - правомерное поведение; хорошее, надлежащее поведение; recess - перерыв, пауза в работе чего-л., кого-л. а) перерыв в работе или заседаниях (каких-л. организаций, суда и т. п.), парламентские каникулы remainder of one’s live – до конца жизни conviction - осуждение, признание виновным paper tiger - "бумажный тигр", неопасный противник (претворяющийся сильным) to impeach – возбуждать дело об отстранении от должности (обык. высших должностных лиц) sitting justice - судья при исполнении служебных обязанностей, судья, участвующий в рассмотрении дела succession – последовательность to step down - уступить свою позицию legitimacy - законность, легальность like-minded - одинаково мыслящий, придерживающийся такого же мнения, имеющий то же мнение, убеждение temporary assignment - временное назначение Exercises: Ex 1 Answer the following questions
Ex. 2 Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations: the Chief Justice - associate justice - to increase the number of justices - to gain control – to be removed from office through impeachment – to hear and rule on cases - conviction of "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors” - partisan political activities – to find smb. not guilty - Court opinion - the 12 federal judicial circuits – to serve as chief prosecutor at the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals – to disqualify oneself from participating in the case - first drafts of the opinions - to investigate an assassination - the fear of mental decline and death Ex. 3 Give English equivalents for the following words: получать, приобретать контроль – смещать членов Верховного суда с должности - государственная измена и взяточничество - председательствовать на судебном заседании – сохранять объетивность на посту - главный обвинитель - судебный процесс - срок пребывания в должности - подавать ходатайство - занимать должность до конца жизни - неопасный противник - судья, участвующий в рассмотрении дела - временное назначение Ex.4 Make up 6 sentences of your own with the words and phrases from exercises 2 and 3. Ex. 5 Supply the word or the word combination from the text which is a periphrasis of the following
Ex.6 Read and translate |
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