Методические указания для аспирантов и соискателей по подготовке к кандидатскому экзамену по английскому языку (для всех специальностей)
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Globalisation The age of globalisation has replaced the era of the cold war. But we still tend to act and think as if nothing has changed. It is not only financial markets that have gone global. So too has the manufacture of deadly weapons. Globalisation, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, has raised “fundamental questions about the capacity of the international system, as currently organized, to ensure stability and, security”. The International Institute for Strategic Studies admits that Globalisation of markets did not cause a domino effect in which the financial crises affecting Asian economies spread to US and European markets. Nonetheless it does have other worrying aspects. “The proliferation of technological know-how and the capacity to manufacture modern weapons significantly increases the threat to security worldwide”. More and more states have the technical skills to research nuclear, biological and chemical weapons for which they can acquire parts on commercial markets. Terrorists and drug traffickers can use the same speedy communications and information technology as everybody else. These trends pose a particular challenge to the US as the “hyper-power” to which the world turns to solve many of its problems. The US is sometimes slow to see the strength of a developing problem and to decide on how its national interests are affected. Its reaction is also constrained by domestic politics, with the President administration distracted by possible hostile reaction from Congress. “Even at the best of times, US attention to the world outside is intermittent”. As a result, problems reach a point when they require forceful action, although the American public is still indifferent to them. The International Institute for Strategic Studies argues this was the case in two big crises, the Asian financial collapse and the confrontation with Iraq. In Asia, the US did not force concerted action until the collapse of Thailand’s economy had brought down some of the other Asian countries, and slowed potential economic recoveries. Iraq's obstruction of the international inspection teams led to the crisis which reached soon boiling-point before being forced to back down. It sees Washington needing to tread a fine line between acting unilaterally and through international institutions, which in both of these cases had the effect of making remedial actions less clear-cut. In a global, interdependent world, what does national sovereignty mean? Can Europe dream of becoming a new “power” in classical terms when the very notion of power has been transformed? Even in terms of security, the notion of sovereignty does not fully correspond to the reality of a Europe whose main guarantor is the US (through NATO). Often Europeans wait for US initiatives. What is the meaning of sovereignty when it is not accompanied by independent responsibility? Meanwhile, Europe will be forced to redefine the meanings of sover eignty and identity in the absence of a clear geographic definition of itself. The Union will continue to move forward with monetary union believing, rightly, that there is light, not at the end of the tunnel, but in the process itself. IV. Find the answers to the following questions in the text.
V. Present rendering of the item “Globalisation”. VI. Copy out the unknown words and find their meanings in the dictionary, learn them by heart. September 11 imposed a kind of fear tax on international commerce that is likely to be a lasting drag on growth. Sand in the Gears of Globalization By Stephen Roach, the chief economist at Morgan Stanley. Globalization is in trouble. One of its key premises – increasingly frictionless cross-border connectivity is in doubt as the world responds to terrorism. The events of September 11 have imposed the equivalent of a new tax on trade, capital and information flows. National borders will have to be tightened. Cross-border transfers will take longer. Insurance rates on shipping will go up, as will premiums for worker compensation. The instant transfer of information can no longer be taken for granted, either. The Nimda computer virus that disrupted global networks in September is an example of e-terror, which slaps yet another tax on cross-border connectivity. There are signs that businesses are tilting software budgets increasingly toward disaster-recovery services, security firewalls and antivirus programs, and backup and recovery systems. A Morgan Stanley tally of chief information officers for America’s 225 largest technology users found that 34 percent attached the highest priority to computer security in December 2001, up sharply from 16 percent in September. September 11 has instilled fear about what might come next. To the extent that multinationals have begun to rethink the strategy of outsourcing production to a global network, the risk premium of globalization has just gone up. That undermines the global earnings stream of multinationals, and the disinflation and productivity gains taint come from outsourcing. Basic economics says that a tax on cross-border connectivity will undoubtedly reduce international flows. Suddenly, the brave new world looks a lot less frictionless than it did before. There is sand in the gears of global commerce. The costs of terror are one thing. But globalization now faces challenges from the business cycle, too. The world is in a rare “synchronous recession”: all the major economies are stumbling at the same time. This is unusual for three reasons. First, the global economy is more dependent than ever on trade, which now accounts for a 24 percent share of world GDP. Second, the world faces the sharpest ever boom-bust in trade. Third, the world has become unbalanced, far too dependent on the American growth machine. So it’s not surprising that recession in America quickly became the world’s recession. That’s hardly a testament to the greater balance in the world economy that globalization was supposed to bring. There’s always a chance of making too much of September 11. The defense of globalization rests largely on the impeccable logic of free trade – that the rising tide of global trade lifts all boats. But it’s not the theory that is in question. It’s the relevance of the theory to a world very different from the one most models of globalization envision. Terror has imposed new taxes on free trade, exacerbating a lethal synchronous recession that makes it increasingly difficult for governments to resist protectionist pressures. Trade frictions are rising – especially between Europe and the United States, as well as between Japan and China – eroding the harmony that globalization was long thought to bring. In the years ahead, the world economy is likely to grow more slowly, especially when compared with the roaring 1990s. Most important, this reflects a likely reduction in productivity growth, the principal source of economic dynamism. The war against terrorism raises business operating costs – increasing outlays to cover office, mailroom and security, insurance and shipping premiums, and the need to carry more inventory as a hedge against transportation disruptions. Add to that a likely increase in defense and homeland security, and it is safe to conclude that more inputs will be required to generate national output – placing a lasting drag on productivity. Diminished globalization will sap growth. So will America’s hangover from excesses of the 1990s – low savings, high debt, excess capacity and a massive current-account deficit. Unless the world uncovers a new growth engine, September 11 could well have marked a critical turning point for the global economy. VII. Mind the meanings of the following words. economy (сущ.) 1) хозяйство, экономика, народное хозяйство; экономика (страны, мира):
2) а) бережливость, расчет, расчетливость, экономия Syn: thrift, frugality б) часто мн. сэкономленное; сбережения 3) организация, строение, структура, устройство, система Syn: structure, organization economics (сущ.) 1) экономика; народное хозяйство Syn: economy; экономика (наука)
2) экономика, экономическая теория, экономическая наука
VIII. Combine the expressions in columns.
IX. Discuss the problems of globalization with your partner. X. Translate the article, learn the underlined words. “One Global Economy, Two Sets of Rules” William J. Holstein, editor in chief of Chief Executive magazine. Q. What are the consequences of not speaking the same language about globalization? A. We have a very distorted global economy. It is tilted. There’s one con sumer, which is the United States. All the other major countries are producers and net exporters. The United States consumes far more than it produces and has to borrow money from the rest of the world to finance that consumption. The rest of the world, particularly Asia, and particularly the central banks of Japan and China, provide a kind of vendor financing to the United States to enable it to continue buying their exports. At some point, the world will run out of savings to finance American consumption, or the rest of the world will begin to doubt the ability of the United States to make good on its obligations. There will be a collapse of one kind or another. Q. What should the American government be doing? A. Insist that the rules of the World Trade Organization and the Interna tional Monetary Fund and all the various global institutions be observed. Japan is part of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development. It’s supposed to be floating its currency. But it intervenes periodically in currency markets to manage the value of its currency. There ought to be some discipline. Q. Why is it a problem if other people want to sell the United States their things and finance the purchases? A. It’s not a problem for a while. In fact, it feels really good for a while because you get free consumption. But in the long term, it turns you into a sharecropper. To finance the consumption, you keep selling off your assets. Q. Aside from fiscal policies, what else should be done in response? A. We need to have a strategy. When I.B.M. sold its PC division to China, C.E.O. Sam Palmisano told The New York Times that I.B.M. wants to be part of China’s strategy. I don’t blame him. If I were the head of I.B.M., I’d want to be part of China’s strategy, too. But it raises an interesting question. If you ask an American C.E.O. if he or she wants to be part of America’s strategy, none of them can answer the question, because America doesn’t have a strategy. Q. In a nutshell, what should America’s strategy be? A. We have to maximize American strength. The United States is innova tive. We have strengths in high technology, research and development and entrepreneurial undertakings. We should be making the investments in R.&D., technology infrastructure and education to maintain and maximize those strengths. Remember the abbreviations: I.B.M. – International Business Machines PC – Personal computer CEO – Chief Executive Officer R&D – business research and development (the department in a large company that is responsible for studying new ideas and developing new products) XI. Prepare a report:”The Main Trends in Globalization”.
Text 1 Putin announces measures to fight crisis in Russia The Moscow News, № 46/ 21-27.11.2008 Prime Minister Vladimir Putin spoke before the tenth congress of the pro-Kremlin United Russia party on Thursday. In the speech, Putin concentrated on economy and said that though Russia is less seriously affected by the global financial crisis than some other nations; urgent measures are needed to help the population confront the possible negative developments. Russian television broadcasted abstracts from the speech delivered in a huge circular hall where the Prime Minister was surrounded by cheering United Russia supporters. Putin is not a member of the party, but holds the post of its chairman. United Russia’s party course is based on the so-called Putin’s plan. In the beginning of his speech, Putin said that the reason behind the ongoing global crisis was due to U.S. recklessness, which made the current crisis “impossible to avert.” “Cheap money doping and mortgage troubles in the United States have caused a real chain reaction, paralyzed the global financial system and brought global distrust to the market,” the Prime Minister said to loud cheers. Russian Presient Dmitry Medvedev also blamed the United States for the financial crisis in his first ever address to the Federal Assemble that was delivered earlier this month. Putin went on to say that “low diversification of the national economy and its low efficiency” made Russia more vulnerable than it could otherwise have been. He also said that he was confident that Russia would emerge stronger from the turmoil. “We can and must come out of the global instability stronger and more competitive,” he said. Putin told the party he has headed since he stepped down as president last May that the Russian government would allocate over 50 billion rubles (about $2 billion) to support and protect the defense sector from bankruptcy. Russia will also issue loans to China and India for purchases of Russian equipment, the prime minister added. “A decision was made to allocate $1 billion to the International Monetary Fund to assist countries in a particu larly difficult financial situation. We will also issue loans to China and India to buy Russian equipment, thereby creating jobs and securing profit for our companies,” Putin said. The Prime Minister also proposed cuts in profit tax to help companies weather the financial turmoil. “We must cut profit tax by 4 percent from January 1, 2009 at the expense of the federal budget. This issue will cost 400 billion rubles ($14.5 billion). All this money will stay in the economy next year and will work in the economy,” Putin said. Russia’s current profit tax stands at 24 percent, of which 6.5 percent is paid to the federal budget and 17.5 percent to regional budgets. Putin also unveiled measures to help the unemployed and proposed raising the level of monthly unemployment benefit by 1,500 rubles ($55) from the current figure of 3,400 rubles ($124), Putin said. He also assured Russian depositors that the government would guarantee 98.5 percent of all their savings held in Russian banks. “The overwhelming majority of Russian deposits – 98.5 percent, are fully protected by the state,” Putin said. The Prime Minister also promised that Russia's currency reserves generated during oil boom “will ensure the stability of the Russian budget system for the coming years, with no depend ence on world oil prices or traditional export goods.” Text 2 No need to hoard By Andy Potts The Moscow News, № 42/ 24-30.10.2008 It’s been a long time since Moscow’s streets were lined with queues ofhungry shoppers waiting to buy whatever food they could find – and it will be a long time before it happens again, according to deputy chief of the city’s service department Vladimir Malyshkov. Despite the increasingly grim global financial outlook, Malyshkov insists Moscow’s residents should not panic, and there is no need to stockpile food. “There is no crisis in Moscow at the moment,” he said. “The economy is stable, we are working as usual and in terms of food and other products Moscow has sufficient resources to ensure there will be no destabilization as a result of the global financial Crisis.” Malyshkov also released details of the city’s winter food harvest: the city has 122 thousand tons of potatoes and other vegetables. Meanwhile, Moscow Mayor Yuri Luzhkov told TVC television that social benefits would be unaffected by the cash crisis, despite a pledge to provide financial support to hard-hit sectors of the city economy. Luzhkov admitted the situation was “very difficult” but added the crisis “is not going to stop the city’s economic system.” Residents will soon start feeling the pinch, however, as the annual round of price increases for fuel and public transport look set to hit new highs: Price rises of up to 30 percent from January 1 are the biggest in three years, with high inflation and soaring fuel coasts blamed for the hike. Electric bills will climb 27 percent, gas bills are due to increase by almost 23 percent and heating costs are climbing 30 percent. The average hike is about 18 percent. Meanwhile, public transport fares are going up 2 rubles for a single trip, pushing bus journeys to 19 rubles and metro rides to 21 rubles. Officials defended the price rises. City government economic spokes’ man Leonid Bratkin pointed out that residents still pay just 64 per cent of the real cost of public services, with the rest subsidized by City Hall. “Whether we like it or not, this increase is a fact,” added Oleg Tolkachev, chairman of the Federation Council on Housing. “We need to be ready for this inevitable increase in Driers.” Text 3 Financial crisis could hurt children The Moscow News, № 42/ 24-30.10.2008 Parents have been warned not to economize during tough times by buying cheap, uncertified toys as they could pose a significant health risk to children. The chairman of the public environmental-safety organization Green Patrol made the announcement this week following the disturbing results of tests on a sample of randomly selected toys purchased in markets across Russia. The safety tests focused on imported Chinese-made toys, which currently make up the vast bulk of the Russian toy market; around 70 percent by value. Last year a comprehensive safety study on 268,000 Chinese toys from across the country found that one in five of the toys posed health risks to children. Almost all of these dangerous toys came from open-air markets and unregistered, unlicensed outlets. “This year the results of random testing suggest that the situation is getting worse,” Green Patrol chairman, Andrei Nagibin, told a press conference on Monday. Of the eleven toys for both children and babies which underwent analysis, four failed to meet safety requirements due to high concentrations of potentially harmful chemicals. “Studies show that the chemicals in these toys can lead to a range of problems; from allergies and skin problems to more long-term effects such as asthma and learning difficulties,” commented Vladislav Kuchma, director of the Children’s and Teenagers' Health and Hygiene Institute. Lack of appropriate packaging for babies' toys also lead to some toys being unhygienic: “Practically any toy given to a child under the age of three will be put in his mouth, so the same strict controls that are applied to food should apply to babies’ toys,” Kuchma continued. Parents are advised to safeguard their children’s health by purchasing only certified toys from reputable shops. However statistics provided by Green Patrol suggest that the majority of Russian parents are failing to follow this advice with more than 50 percent of toy purchases in Russia still being made in open-air markets where the majority of toys have no certification. The major reason for this is the lower costs on markets, which often sell pirated versions of toys from reputable companies for a fraction of the price. The problem of piracy and cheaply-made toys is less pronounced in the capital where higher affluence allows parents to shop in more up market retail outlets. According to figures from Euro monitor there is also a rapidly growing elite market for toys, with shops being overwhelmed by manufacturers’ offers of higher-priced goods. The average Moscow parent now spends around 13,700 rubles on toys for their child each year which is approaching levels of spending in the West; by comparison British parents spend about £461 (19,700 rubles) and American parents $750 (20,500 rubles) on toys per year. However Kuchma raised concerns that the upward trend in spending on toys could soon be reversed as parents try to compensate for increases in food and fuel costs: “In the early 1990s, in the financial crisis after the default, there was a catastrophic reduction in the quality of children’s toys... We are concerned that the conditions of the looming global financial crisis will lead to another sharp reduction in the quality of toys imported from China,” he said. The Russian public organization National Heath League announced that it would be working closely with Green Patrol to open up a dialogue with Chinese toy makers and Russian importers to address the ongoing concerns over quality. “Our children’s health depends on protection from sub-standard products,” director of the league, Igor Stupakov, told the conference. Appendix 1
Notes 1. Существительное news (новость, новости) имеет значение единственного числа и согласуется с глаголом в единственном числе: What is the latest news? 2. Существительное information (информация, сообщение, сведения) употребляется только в единственном числе: The information is rather important. 3. Существительное (mass) media (средства массовой информации) согласуется с глаголом во множественном числе: The American media stress… Appendix 2 My Research Work My name is K. I am a full-time post-graduate student of the Economics and running the enterprise department at Bryansk State Technical University (BSTU). I was born in Bryansk on the 7th of March 1978. I left school number 21 and entered our University. On graduating from the University I had been working at Bryansk Machine-Building Plant for two years. I have always been interested in research work. When a student I took part in the work of the student’s scientific society and delivered reports at the scientific conferences. Last year I found an interesting theme and made up my mind to take the post-graduate courses. I passed my entrance exams with excellent marks and became a post-graduate student. The theme of my thesis is “…”. It was approved by the scientific council of our University. My supervisor is professor N., Doctor of Science. During the first year I have done much. I have written 2 articles, which were published in the collection of works of post-graduate students. Besides, I have taken part in 3 scientific conferences. What’s more, I have collected bibliography. The most interesting points of my work are the following… I. Read and translate the dialogue. A: What is your name? B: My name is Olga Ivanova. A: What’s your occupation? B: I am a part-time post-graduate student of the Computer aided design department at Bryansk State Technical University. A: What educational establishment have you graduated from? B: I graduated from the Mechanical Technological department of the same University. A: Why have you made up your mind to enter the post-graduate courses? B: I have always been interested in research work; that’s why I decided to take the post-graduate courses. But I’d like to have some practice too. Thus, I combine the work at the plant and doing the post-graduate studies. A: What is the theme of your thesis? B: The theme of my thesis is “…”. A: Who is your supervisor? B: My supervisor is professor N., Doctor of Science. A: Have you taken part in scientific conferences? B: Of course, I have. Last year I took part in the international conference. It was held in Bryansk. A: Do you have any published articles? B: Yes, I have one published article in the journal on computer aided design. A: What have you done this year? B: I have collected bibliography, written the first paragraph of the first chapter. Moreover I have attended classes in English, philosophy and educational work. Also I have read a monograph in English on my specialty. A: Have you already passed your candidate exam in philosophy? B: Not yet. II. Make up a similar dialogue and present it. III. Enlarge on the theme using the following questions.
IV. Get ready to be interviewed on your professional background and your plans for the future. Английский язык: методические указания для аспирантов и соискателей по подготовке к кандидатскому экзамену по английскому языку (для всех специальностей). – Брянск: БГТУ, 2009.БРЫЛЕВА ЕКАТЕРИНА ВЛАДИМИРОВНА Научный редактор Г.В. ЦареваРедактор издательства Л.И. АфонинаКомпьютерный набор Л.В. Гореленкова Темплан 2009 г., п. Подписано в печать. Формат 60х84 1/16. Бумага офсетная. Офсетная печать. Усл. печ. л. 2,03 Уч.-изд. л. 2,03 Тираж 50 экз. Заказ Бесплатно. Издательство Брянского государственного технического университета. 241035, Брянск, бульвар 50-летия Октября, 7. БГТУ. 58-82-49. Лаборатория оперативной полиграфии БГТУ, ул. Институтская, 16. |
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