Учебно-методический комплекс дисциплины
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There is no universally recognized list of elementary indivisible meanings, semes. What seems to be primitive (indivisible) in one language, may be composite in another language. EX: married in Eng. is primitive, in Rus. it is a hyperonym to two hyponyms: замужем, женат. Eng. to adopt does not have hyponyms which could correspond to Rus. удочерять, усыновлятьQuestions
Task 4 1. The method of word-definition is widely used in…
2. The CA method is invented by… a. philosophers b. American and European linguists c. American, European and Russian linguists 3. The prototypical theory first originated in…
4. The seme is…
5. The seme woman in word-meanings mother. spinster, wife is… a. an integrating seme b. a collocation seme c. an assertive seme 6. The term hyperonym belongs to the CA version, where other terms are…
7. The seme which establishes the individual meaning of the word is called…
8. Semes are established…
9. The inventory of semes in different languages…
Reading
5. Semantic structure of a polysemantic word. Polysemy and homonymy. Semantic changeOUTLINE
1. The notion of a semantic structure of a polysemantic word and a notion of a lexico-semantic variant Words in general, especially in English, do not have only one meaning. Monosemantic words, words with one meaning only, are rare in a natural language, and mostly they are scientific terms, such as atom, scarlet fever, data base etc. The major part of the lexicon is polysemantic. The number of meanings of a frequently used word can be about hundred, without the meanings which occasionally appear in speech. Polysemantic nature of a lexicon is one of the constituent characteristics of the language which makes it different from many other sign systems where there is one-to-one correspondence between form and meaning. Polysemy makes it possible to express unlimited number of meanings by a limited number of lexical units. Many meanings of a word, realized in speech can be brought down to a certain number of meanings, called LSV, the term of Professor A.I. Smirnitsky. LSV is a language sign which demonstrates unity of its form and meaning within its grammatical paradigm and combinability properties. The set of LSV of a word is called the semantic structure of a word. Ex: The adjective raw has at least seven meanings in Modern English:
Moreover. Besides these meanings, officially registered by vocabularies, there are the so-called contextual meanings, which cannot be registered, because mostly people are not aware that one and the same word, in one and the same LSV, may mean different things: EX: She washed the door (material of which the door is made) She stood in the door (gap in the wall) She locked the door (the entrance) One of the most important problems of polysemy is the problem of interrelation and interdependence of LSVs in the semantic structure of one and the same word. There is no universally recognized theory, but Nikitin’s theory will suffice The meanings of a polysemantic word are correlated and they reflect the correlations of concepts in human mind. Concepts do not exist separately in the human mind, they are organized into a structure, and their relations find reflection in the language in general, in the semantic structure of a polysemantic word in particular. These correlations are of 2 types: implicational, classificational Implicational correlations are the reflection of real relations between thing, between thing and its property, between properties. In the human mind one concept presupposes or implies another concept, because there is some interdependence, some relation, connection or interaction between things denoted by these concepts. These are the following correlations: part and whole, cause and consequence, spatial relations, temporal relations, material-thing made of it, action-purpose, process-result, property-thing etc. One of the most important types of implicational correlations is a metonymic correlation. EX; fire 1) огонь, пламя 2)топка, печь, камин 3)пожар 4) орудийный огонь, стрельба shoot 1)стрелять 2) убивать stand 1) стоять 2) поставить (каузативная связь следствие-причина), slide 1) катание 2)ледяная дорожка write 1) изображать, передавать речь графически 2) сочинять as in write books, music, on travels etc Classificational correlations do not reflect really existing in the world relations between things, but relations, established in the mind because of the similarity of properties of things. These correlations are subdivided into hyper-hyponymical (родо-видовые) and similative The first type: EX: woman 1) женщина 2) cлужанка 3) содержанка 4) жена (родовидовые) Man 1) мужчина 2) человек (видо-родовые) Cat 1) кошка 2) представитель семейства кошачьих (видо-родовые) Very often meaning are correlated ad denoting class and subclass with high or low degree of the property: Ex: chance 1) случай 2) счастливый случай manners 1)манеры 2) хорошие манеры temper 1)характер 2) сильный характер, или несносный характер quality 1) качество 2) высокое качество feel 1) чувствовать, ощущать 2) чувствовать на ощупь run 1)быстро передвигаться на ногах 2)быстро передвигаться similative classificational correlations : the common element of correlated meanings is not equal to the total meaning of any of the correlated concepts. Each of correlated meanings besides the common element, has its own individual element, unlike hyper-hyponymical correlations. One of the most important types of similative correlations is a metaphoric correlation EX; Wall 1) стена здания 2) ограда shock 1)удар 2) шок drink 1) пить 2) жадно воспринимать ape 1) человекообразная обезьяна 2) кривляка fade 1) вянуть 2) стареть 2. Polysemy and context Some meanings of a polysemantic word–principal, basic, stylistically neutral- are representative of a word in isolation. Such meanings are called free or denominative. Other meanings become realized only in certain contexts. This is so with all polysemantic words. The word co l o u r in isolation is understood immediately as цвет, or, perhaps краска, but , such as ‘redness in the face’ or ‘flag of a ship, ensign or standard of a regiment’ are realized only in certain contexts: she has very little colour ( she is pale),salute the colors. Context is the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual LSV of a word. The context brings out the meaning, determines it, and disambiguates it. Contexts can be linguistic and extralinguistic. EX: My friend has flown from New York. You understand, that the friend has come from NY by plane, he hasn’t flown from there using wings as a bird. You understand that because you know something about the world, you go by a certain picture of the world, in which people do not have wings and have no capacity of going up into the air unassisted. Linguistic contexts, at least universally recognized ones are lexical and grammatical Lexical Context In lexical contexts the main factor is the lexical meaning of a word with which the polysemantic word in question is combined. The meaning of DEP in isolation is глубокий. The meaning STRONG, INTENCE is realized only in combination with words denoting colour: DEEP RED. The meaning of STRONGLY FELT, COMING FROM THE HEART is realized in combinations with such words as sorrow, grief, sympathy, feelings; FAIR which has primary meaning of just, objective, honest, realizes its other meanings in the following combinations: fair weather(good,dry,fine), fair wind ( favorable),fair hair, skin ( pale, light in colour): fair sex ( beautiful) The meaning determined by lexical contexts is called lexically or phraseologically bound, or meaning by collocation. Grammatical Context Is the minimal grammatical – phrasal or sentence structure -, which reveals a certain LSV of a polysemantic word. EX; the meaning заставлять of a verb to MAKE is realized in the structure, where the verb is followed by a noun +the infinitive without to: to make people agree, to make things happen, to make children observe the rules. The meaning of To BECOME, to TURN OUT to BE requires another structure: She will make a good teacher (the verb in the future, + NP Actually, both contexts should be taken to consideration .Grammatical context is enough to suppose that in structures to make smth and to make up smth two different meanings of the verb make are realized, but to specify which LSD is used in the first structure the lexical context is necessary.: whether it is to make a chair or to make a mistake, or to make progress. David Crystal says that the meaning of the word is not clear without a context. But to put the word into a linguistic context means putting it into a sentence. And putting into a sentence means adding grammar. 3. Principles of classification of LSVs The meanings of polysemantic word are not equal. Meanings may be direct or figurative, main, primary or secondary; central :: peripheral; NARROW :: EXTENDED ; GENERAL :: SPECIAL AND ETC Direct, main, primary, basic or general meaning is the LSV which is immediately associated with the word in isolation, without any context, it’s a normative name for a certain referent. The meaning possesses the highest frequency at the present stage Secondary, minor or peripheral meanings are observed only in certain contexts, and very often their grammatical paradigms and combinability are different. EX; the LSV people at table, which is one of the meanings of the lexeme table is not used in the plural LSVs can be differentiated in accordance with style and sphere of language use into neutral and stylistically coloured. Stylistically coloured LSVs can be classified into bookish & colloquial Bookish a) general, b) poetical, c)scientific or learned Colloquial a) literary colloquial b) familiar colloquial c)slang From the historical point of view the LSVs may be classified into etymological ( the earliest known), archaic ( going out of use at present),obsolete( gone out, non-existent at present), present-day meaning, original meaning, serving as bases for derived ones. The structures of correlated polysemantic words in different languages do not , as a rule, coincide;
Words identical in sound-form and different in meaning are called homonyms. Unlike polysemy, homonymy is not a constitutional feature of a language. In many cases it is a side-effect of the language development. Homonymy may take shape due 1) to the fact that in the process of development different meanings of a polysemantic word move very far away from each other and come to be viewed as separate lexical units. Flower and Flour ( цветок, мука) – historically there were two meanings of one and the same word in ME flour 1) flower 2) the finest part of wheat, which later on developed into мука, and lost any correlations with the primary meaning. 2) sound development. Words originally different in form due to sound development become identical in form: I and eye In many cases there are no objective criteria that can differentiate between polysemy and homonymy. And this is clearly seen in dictionaries. E.g. Plant 1) растение 2) оборудование, машины 3) фабрика производственное предприятие 4)обман, мошенничество 5) крот , т.е человек, который внедряется в банду для её позднейшего разоблачения. In many other dictionaries meanings 2 and 3 may be given separately, as meanings of a word plant, which is only homonymous with the word plant , having number 1 meaning. Numbers 4 and 5 can also be qualified as meaning of a third word plant. Cause, results and nature of semantic change Words change their meaning in the course of their historical development. The word hospital previously meant temporary accommodation, abode for arriving visitors and guests. The word guest itself, in its turn meant enemy, stranger, foreigner The causes of semantic change can be extra-linguistic and linguistic. Extra-linguistic causes are various changes in the life of the speech community. These changes affect the conceptual system, it develops with the progress of human knowledge. EX: OE eorðe meant ‘the soil, the ground” With the adverb of Christianity it developed the meaning ‘the world of man as opposed to heaven’. With the progress of science, and especially astronomy, it developed another meaning –‘the third planet from the sun in the solar system’ Materially the world changes, new things appear, but not always the appearance of a new thing gives rise to a new lexemee. Simply old word acquires a new referent and a new meaning. The word car meant ‘a four wheeled wagon,’ and with the appearance of motor-cars it acquired a new meaning. Film meant thin piece of skin, but with appearance and development of cinematography there came new meanings - фото-и кинопленка, кинофильм Linguistic causes 1.ellipsis. If two words occur together, very often one of them is omitted and its meaning is transferred to the other word. OE.steorfan which meant ‘to die’ was used with the word hunger. Later on the word hunger disappeared and the verb alone started to be used in the meaning die of hunger, summit instead of summit meeting 2.descrimination of synonyms. O.E/Tyde and time used to be synonyms. Then tide acquired a more specific meaning, referring to shifting waters. Land and country. Land was used in the meaning ‘страна, территория государства’ , now this meaning is peculiar to the word country. Absolute and complete synonyms are a redundancy which the language does not tolerate. 3. Linguistic analogy. Very often if one of the members of a synonymic set acquires a new meaning, other members of the set also acquire the similar meaning. The word catch acquired the meaning ‘to understand’. Its synonyms grasp and get also developed similar meanings. Grasp an idea, he doesn’t get on very quickly. Results Changes in the denotational sphere Extension or Narrowing. In the first case a lexeme widens its meaning. It is used with a larger extension. That is it can denote a bigger class of things. Citizen denoted a town dweller, and its modern generalized meaning is подданный государства. To arrive meant to come to shore, to land, and nowadays it is used in a more general meaning – to come In the second case a lexeme becomes narrower in meaning. It is used in reference to a smaller class of things. The word engine had a more general meaning of ‘a mechanical device’; while nowadays it is used in a narrower meaning ‘mechanical source of power’. Meat meant any food, and now it means мясо. Generalization or specialization. In the case of generalization the word which was used in sublanguage of a certain social, professional or occupational group finds its way into the national language often with a change of meaning. Numerous examples of this process have occurred in the religious field, where office, doctrine, novice have taken on a more general, secular range of meaning. The word camp was previously used as a military term now it is a lexeme of the basic vocabulary and denotes any type of temporary dwelling Specialization of meaning takes place when a word of the general vocabulary changes its meaning and starts to be used in the specialized vocabulary of some limited group. To glide was a general term for moving gently and smoothly, now it is used as a term in sports. Very often these two types of change of meaning go hand in hand. Changes in the connotational sphere Amelioration. Improvement of the connotational component of meaning. The word guest previously in OE had the meaning of ‘enemy, stranger, who comes from unknown parts’. The word revolutionary once associated in the capitalist mind with an undesirable overthrow of the law and order, is now widely used in advertising as a signal of desirable novelty. Lean no longer brings to mind emaciation but athleticism and good looks Pejoration or deterioration. A lexeme develops a negative sense of disapproval. ME villain neutrally described a serf, a peasant, in Modern English villain means ‘ ‘a man with sinister intentions’ Cowboy originally developed quite positive connotations, with its romantic associations of the West. To these now have been added a number of distinctly negative overtones:
Nature Any semantic change presupposes some connection between the old meaning and the new one. The nature of semantic connection is no different from semantic connections between the LSVs of a polysemantic word: implicational and similative relations. Implicational relations are mostly based on contiguity of meaning, which in the narrow sense is most vividly represented by metonymy. It is the process of associating two referents, one of which is part of the other, or is closely connected with it. A woman is called petticoats. A word school has at least three metonymically connected meanings: 1.institution foe educating children 2. process of being educated at school (started and finishing school) 3.time when teaching is given, lessons Similative relations are mostly based on similarity of meaning, which is again typically represented by metaphor. It is a semantic process of associating two referents, which in some aspect resemble each other. This can be very well illustrated by the metaphoric use of parts of human body: the back of the chair, the leg of a table, the hand of a clock, the head of the bed, the arm of a tree, the eye of a needle, the foot of the mountain, the heart of the matter. In many cases there are no objective reasons to associate two referents. Simply two absolutely different referents, which objectively have nothing in common may cause the same perceptions or feelings Soft wine, soft voice, dull voice, резкие краски; it is common to perceive similarity between sound and colour , between colors and emotions , between physical actions and between emotional and mental states: fly – ‘move in the air with the help of the wings’ and fly into a rage. The similarity is based on the quickness. Conclusion: the nominating system of a natural language consists of two main levels: the level of direct nominations, and the level of secondary nominations. The first level demonstrates rather rigid, one to one correspondence between concept and word. But words in their direct meaning cannot express all the meanings and cannot satisfy nominating needs of a humanity, which, besides describing the world in general, portraying it, has also to express emotions, attitudes, evaluation, relations etc. The man cannot, each time he wants to express a new notion, make up a new word. The volume of human memory doesn’t allow that. But this deficiency of the system of direct meanings is being very nicely compensated by the second level, the system of secondary nominations. One and the same word, proceeding from different associations and obeying the rules of semantic variability, can express practically an indefinite number of concepts. That is one of the main characteristic of the natural language as a sign system and as a cognitive system. Questions
Task 5 1. The semantic structure of a polysemantic word is …
2. Besides LSVs registered in dictionaries, the semantic structure of a polysemantic word included also… a. grammatical meanings b. connotational meanings c. contextual meanings 3. Relations between the meanings вымысел and литература of the word fiction are … a. implicational b. hyper-hyponymical c. similative 4. Relations between the meanings a)житель Новой Англии ( в Америке) and b) любой aмериканец of the word Yankee are …
5. The meaning сумасшедший, безумный of the word natty is realised in the context… a. It’s got a rich natty taste! b. natty slack coal c. That natty friend of yours! 6. The classification of LSVs into etymological, archaic, obsolete and present-day meanings is carried out in accordance with… a. stylistic principles b. historic principles c. the principle of types of nomination 7. Homonymy is… a. similarity in form and difference in meaning b. identity in meaning and form c. similarity in meaning and difference in form
a. two absolutely identical synonyms start to develop different meanings b. one of the members of a synonymic set acquires a new meaning and other members of the set also acquire the similar meaning. c. two words occur together and very often one of them is omitted and its meaning is transferred to the other word. 9. Generalization of meaning takes place when the previous meaning … a. acquires amelioration b. becomes a lexeme of a national language c. is used with a smaller extension Reading 1.Ginzburg R.S et andere. A Course in Modern English Lexicology.M.,1979 Semasiology, § 21-23,25 |
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