Учебно-методический комплекс дисциплины
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Meanings of lexemes of the vocabulary of a language are organized into a rather complex semantic structure. Meanings are organized into groups, structures, hierarchies in accordance with different semantic correlations: global systems: hyper-hyponymical and partitive, and microstructural: synonymical, oppositional (antonymic and conversional)2.Global structures: partitive relations Partitive relations, relations “part-whole” or element – system (structure) are relations of a universal, global character within the universe from elementary particles like atoms to galaxes and constellations.These relations comprise things of all levels of complexity and organize them into different multilevel structures. Partitive relations are not investigated properly, and there are few problems and differences of opinion concerning them, because little is known about them. It seems clear, that partitive relations play an important role in the world, in the mind and in the language. In particular, partitive relations of words are one of the major principles of semantic relations within a vocabulary, which reflect connections between things in reality. Partitive relations can be organic and non-organic. In organic partitive relations parts are determined by the whole, and the whole is the condition for the existence of parts. The name of the part is determined through the whole, its hyperonym expresses a concept of the part of the whole. EX: An arm – part of the body from shoulder to nails A month – a part of the year equal to 1|12th Paragraph, brunch, chapter, detail, share, component,, pierce, chunck, ingredient, moment, fragment, passage, portion, department, segment, line, volume, citation, wings, legs. Non-organic partitive relations do not presuppose rigid dependences between part and whole. The whole doesn’t constitute the bases and condition for the existence of parts. Parts belong to the whole due to some non-essential property. The wholes of this kind are called by Nikitin as conglomeratic. E.g.cradle, pram, baby bath, feeding bottle, nappies, united by the idea infant care. Here the thing is habitually connected with the idea of its participation in the conglomeratic set of a definite kind. The conglomeratic unity tableware can be represented by such partitives as dinner plate, knife and fork, wineglasses, bread basket, salad bowel, potato dish etc. Roulette: revolving disk, spin, roulette ball. 3. Global structures: hyper-hyponymic relations Another global relation within the vocabulary of all languages is hyper-hyponymic relations, a semantic relation of inclusion. This notion is often explained by logicians in terms of classes. The extension of class of things, denoted by the word flower is wider and includes the class of things denoted by the word tulip. The extension of scarlet is included into the extension of class of red. We may also use the notion of intension to give the definition. The extension of the word flower is wider, than the extension of the word tulip, but the intension of the word tulip is larger, than that of flower, because the definition of the word tulip, its notion, concept must comprise a larger number of attributes, than is necessary for the characteristics of the word flower. EX: flower – that part of a plant that produces seed Tulip –bulb plant with, in spring, a large bell-shaped or cup-shaped flower (that part of a plant that produces seeds) on a tall stem. Hyper-hyponymic relations can also be determined by unsymmetrical implication. The utterance something is a tulip implies that something is a flower, but the utterance that something is a flower doesn’t imply that something is a tulip, for this something may happen to be a violet, a rose, a daffodil etc. In hyper-hyponymic chains the word with the largest extension and smallest intension is a hyperonym.Words which extensions are included into the extension of a hyperonym and whose intensions include the intension of a hyperonym are hyponyms. The relation between the lexems ca n be shown in the form of a tree diagram, where the more general term is placed at the top: Spirits (superordinate, hyperonym)
It is a core relationship within a vocabulary. The most appropriate way of defining a lexeme is to provide a hyperonym with various distinguishing features. It is usually possible to trace a hierarchical path through a dictionary, following the hyperonyms as they become increasingly abstract, until we arrive at such general notions as essence, being, and existence. EX: Cherry-brandy – brandy- spirits – liquid – material – substance- quality – character – nature – essence Gorgonzola –a blue-veined strongly flavored cheese of Italian origin Cheese – a food consisting of coagulated, compressed and usually ripened milk curds Food – material consisting essentially of protein, carbohydrate and fat Material – the elements, constituents or substances of which something is composed Substance –a fundamental or characteristic part or quality Quality –peculiar or essential character, nature or property Character – the distinctive or essential nature of something Nature – the inherent character or constitution of a person or thing … At this stage clear sense-relations between the lexemes no longer exist. Certainly, languages are not logical. There are very many gaps, asymmetry and ambiguities in natural languages. There are very many lexems which belong to no hyperonym. If we try the formula X is a kind of Y on such items as chaos, nightclub, interesting, and balloon we shall be unable to assign any hyperonym other than a vague general term, such as place, state or thing. These are not successive level, and only successive levels can be used in definitions. To go higher in the hierarchy of abstraction is not very convenient. Dictionaries are not always successful. Balloon, for example is variously described a as a bag, ball, pouch and toy. Abstract notions are especially difficult, especially verbs and adjectives. The level of abstraction is sometimes difficult to determine. Which is more abstract – sound or noise? Is sound a kind of noise or noise is a kind of sound? Such adjectives as square and round don’t seem to have a hyperonym. The names of colors in English do not have hyperonyms either. The adjective coloured is not a hyperonym, because in some contexts it is in opposition with white – when speaking of races of people or about a laundry. In other contexts it is opposed to the word transparent – There was a colored liquid in the bottle. There is much difference between partitive relations and hyperhyponymic ones. The first is based on connections, interdependences of things, the second – on similarities and differences of general and particular features of things. They may overlap. 4.Microstructures: synonyms Minor types of semantic relations within a lexicon, or microstructures – groups of lexemes with systemic relations. Nikitin singles out such groups as equonyms, or cohyponyms, synonyms and oppositives (antonyms and conversives) Equonyms are words of the same level of abstraction, which have a common hyperonyms. Tulips, violets, forget-me-nots, lilies are equonyms in their relation to each other. In their seme structure there is a thematic seme, or archseme, which is semantically equivalent to their hyperonym, and this is the common element of their lexical meaning. Besides, each of them has a differential seme, which distinguishes it from its equonyms. Synonyms are words which are united due to semantic relation of similarity.They are traditionally described as words different in sound form and similar or equivalent in meaning. This understanding has been severely criticized.
NB. A) Actually, even denotational meanings are not identical, this is a very rare case in languages and concerns mostly terms (alveolar or teeth-ridge). Words in synonymic sets usually have opposed elements of meaning in their denotational meaning, or intension. For example, adjectives distant, far,far off, far –away, remote differ from each other in the following denotational features: 1. the measure of distance between two objects 2. the position of the observer in relation to these objects 3. whether the objects stationary or moving 4. absence or presence of connections between the objects Distant and far denote only the considerable distance between the objects. Far-off and far-away denote a much longer distance than distant and far. Remote also denotes a big distance from a certain point, and that point is regarded as the position of the viewer. The object which is remote is regarded as stationary and in an inaccessible place. B) Different connotations are capable of influencing the denotational meaning of the synonymic set.ср: лик, личико, мордашка, образина. Лик, besides positive connotations, also carries some denotational difference шn comparison with образина. The interrelation between connotational and denotational meanings in synonyms is complex. Difference of connotational component is almost always accompanied by some difference in denotational meaning. Ginsburg sduggests dividing synonyms into ideographic ( purely denotational: seem, appear, look) and Ideographic- stylistic – ( those where connotational and denotational differences are combined; see, behold ) Actually synonyms are never identical. It is usually possible to find some nuance which separates THEM:
There is no objective criteria of synonymity. The criterion of referent, in accordance with which the meanings of two words are similar, if they denote the same referent is obviously wrong. One and the same woman may be named: my mother, Mr Brown’s wife, the lady in white, Ann’s friend, the senior accountant of our firm, my neighbour – there is no synonymity between these names. The criterion of interchangeability in linguistic contexts, according to which words are synonyms if they can be used in the same contexts with the same meaning, is not very powerful. Words of such kind are very rare. Языкознание, лингвистика seem to be synonyms. but only лингвистика can be combined with структурная (структурная лингвистика), отечественное языкознание, Общее языкознание, психолингвистика. Mostly synonyms are used in different syntactic, morphologic and lexical patterns, their lexical and grammatical valency may be different EX Alone, solitary, lonely, lone, lonesome, forlorn, desolate Alone, unlike the rest, can be used only predicatively. Lone, on the contrary, can be used only attributively Authentic, genuine can both be combined with names of works of art, artifacts, only genuine is combined with the names of natural objects: genuine peаrls, coffee, Russian wolfhound Only authentic is used with the names of titles. He was an authentic prince So/ interchangeability is possible only in certain contexts, where the similarity comes to the fore, and the difference is neutralized. In contexts with the word Building we may use both high and tall, the man may be tall, the table may be high. So, absolute synonyms are not possible, But Lions, as an optimist, suggests the following classification in case of absolute synonyms. First he distinguishes complete synonyms - words with similar denotational and connotational meanings from total synonyms , which may be complete or incomplete, but which are interchangeable in all contexts. This enables him to have a classification of 4 groups of synonyms:
Synonymic sets, оr groups Members of synonymic groups, or synonyms are words different in their sound-form, but similar in denotational meaning of one of their LSVs and interchangeable at least in some contexts. Each group comprises a dominant element. It is the most general term, potentially containing the specific features, which are normally expressed by the other members of the group. It is usually deprived of specific connotations or stylistic colouring, it is mostly neutral and the most frequent. EX: See, behold, view, survey, contemplate, observe, notice, note ,discern, perceive A characteristic feature of synonymic sets of English is the opposition of native and borrowed words, especially Latin and French. The native words are usually colloquial, while French or Latin counterparts are bookish or literary. This results in stylistically differentiated pairs and triples :
One and the same word, especially a polysemantic word may be a member of different synonymic groups in its different LSVs EX; rotten, rancid, bad, decayed Rotten, unpleasant ,disagreeable, evil, undesirable The law of synonymic attraction; Radiation of synonyms 5.Microstructures: oppositives The oppositives are characterized by semantic polarity or opposite meaning. The definition is vague and open to cratisism. The most well-known oppositives are antonyms. Antonyms are mostly words, whose meanings include the idea of some opposing, contrasting properties. good-bad, big-little, large-small,bottom-top,clean-dirty,dark-light,deep-shallow,fast-slow,heavy-light They are subdivided into the following groups: 1.Contraries are graded properties occupying a certain point on a scale, oppositive relations connect polar members or members which are located at an equal distance from the central point:
J.Lions calls such antonyms proper. One of the important properties is that the denial of one member of the antonymic opposition doesn’t necessarily imply the assertion of the other member. If you say that somebody is not young it doesn’t necessarily mean that he is old. Parametrical and evaluative words such as long, big, good, beautiful etc. generally imply comparison with some implicit norm. To say that something is big is to say that it exceeds the size norm. Tall – he exceed the usual average height for men. A tall girl and a tall man are too different things. 172 – 180 In parametrical oppositions there are usually marked and unmarked members. The unmarked members in some contexts can express the meanings of marked members too. That is they can be used to express both oppositions: How old the little girl is? Here old expresses the generic term for old and young – that is the age and is = What’s the age of the little girl? How big is this? – we mean the size, and do not imply that the thing is big. The words height, width, depth are used in this way too; when we say – the length of this table – we do not mean that the table is long. We can very well say – the length of the table is very small. 2. Conrtadictories. Two opposing properties which form the meaning of antonyms, divide the semantic space without remainder. Contradictories admit of no possibility between them: dead and alive, earthly-heavenly, perfect – imperfect, first – last. These are no gradable opposites. There is no scale of aliveness or firstness. If one of the pair applies, the other doesn’t. To be dead means not to be alive, and to be alive means not to be dead. The items complement each other in their meaning and are called complementary One of the pair contradicts the other, and to make them equivalent you may use not in front of them. Morphologically antonyms can be divided into those formed from different roots, EX: good-bad, high-low, dead-alive And those formed from the same root with the help of a negative affix: EX: pleasant-unpleasant, kind-unkind, white – non-white, regular-irregular Among the latter group Nikitin suggests singling out 2 subgroups: 1. intensional where both antonymic properties are known and can be defined: живой-неживой (мертвый) tasty-untasty (неприятный вкус) Неre negative variants have autonomous qualitative characteristics 2.intensional-extensional white-non-white - non-white doesn’t have any definite intensional characteristics. It is something which is not white. Its extention excludes white, otherwise its meaning, its intension is not clear tasty-tasteless ( не имеющий вкуса) Intensional contradictories in languages are difficult to find. The world is not so rigid, it has no fixed boundaries, there are very many transient, intermediate cases, the human mind is capable of reflecting nuances: tall –of middle height – short, dead , deader than nail, more dead than alive, half-dead, alive, alive and kicking. Morphologically antonyms can be divided into absolute and derivational – (happy-unhappy) Antonyms as a rule, can be found in the sphere of property words, mostly adjectives, verbs and adverbs, and nouns which are based on property, such as beauty, dwarf, giant, весельчак, храбрец etc. It would be next to impossible to try to find antonyms within pure substantives and the names of natural classes: Horse, garden/ chair, dinner, bread, spoon, tree, cucumber etc. Conversives Conversives are based on the notion of relations. Relations connect at least two things, which are called arguments of the relation. Relations can be symmetric: Argument---------------------------------------------------------------Argument ( Mr.B) relation of neighborhood (Mr.C) The status of the arguments is the same, it is identical. Mr.D is the neighbour of mr.C and Mr.C is the neighbour of Mr. B. Conversives are based on unsymmetrical relations. Buyer ------------------------------------------------------------------Seller Relations of trade Words buyer and seller are conversives, they have opposed properties acquiared in the relation of trade, words to buy and to sell are also conversives, they denote trade relations, viewed from different angles, either from the side of one argument, or the other argument EX: Relation of birth Child------------------------------------------------------------------ parent to be born to give birth Correlative and relational character of the conversive properties is obvious; the property of one argument implies the corresponding conversive property of the other argument. One and the same relation, viewed from different angles can demonstrate conversive properties: the relation of subordination presupposes on the one hand bossing, and on the other hand, bidding. A conversive property is not an inherent property of the thing, it is a property which is acquired only if the thing enters a certain relation Conversive relations can be named by a symmetric predicate and differently named arguments: Husband, wife, marry By lexically different predicates and lexically different arguments:выйти замуж, жениться, муж,жена. By means of grammar: he gave her a present, She was given a present By lexically identical predicate which codifies different directions of relation: She wears the dress well, The dress wears well Questions
Task 7
2. Hyperonym…
3. Conversive relations are… a. global relations b. a subtype of synonymic relations c. a subtype of oppositives 4. Synonymy is the relation between… a .words b. LSVs c. word-forms 5. Synonyms may be different in their… a. connotation b. part-of- the speech meaning c. categorial meaning 6. Synonyms are words which are…
7. Contradictories are…
8. Contraries are antonyms which…
9. Conversives may be found …
10. Conversives are based on…
Reading
8. Specific lexical dimensions and their role in communication OUTLINE
1. Social appropriateness of taboo and euphemisms A few dozen lexemes comprise the special category of taboo language – items which people avoid using in polite society, either because they believe them harmful or embarrassing and offensive – death, or the supernatural, a sexual act and its consequences – diseases and babes, physiologic functioning of the human body, physical, mental and social abnormality. Prohibition on use may be explicit as in the law courts (contempt of court)/ the Houses of Parliament (unparliamentarily language) and the broadcasting media (words officially banned until after some time in the evening so that children are less likely to be exposed to them. But more commonly it is a kind of understanding between people. Which occasionally becomes explicit in the form of comment, rebuke, correction or sanction. There are various ways of avoiding taboo terms. One way is to use a medical or technical term, another is to part-spell the item, and the everyday method is to employ an expression which refers to the taboo topic in an indirect and vague way – to use euphemisms EX:
It is difficult to generalize about the usage of taboo words. They express different degrees of force and no two are exactly the same grammatically. They vary in their ability to be used as nouns, verbs, adjectives or to form part of compounds. One of the most versatile words is shit. 2. Language policy and political correctness Advertising, political and military statements have been especially criticized in recent years by the various campaigns for Plain English. In these domains the extent to which people are prepared to use jargon to hide realities is a source of amusement, disbelief and horror. A lie is called “an inoperative statement”, nuclear plant explosion “energetic disassembly”/ or “abnormal evolution” Here is an example of language used by second-hand car sellers (CARSPEAK) to entice, cheat and trick their customers into buying: Specimen: a very large, very, very shiny long-nosed motor-car with leather seats Must be seen: a fairly long shiny car with a host of extras: or a rather peculiar foreign model that you might hesitate to buy because of the rumors you have heard Host of extras: A sun-roof, stereo speakers, badge bar, and a horn that plays the opening tunes of “Dixie” One careful lady owner: boringly sedate and reliable, unscratched, over-hovered, taken through the car-wash once a week; called Belinda Snip: a vehicle prices at $50-£100 below the sum the vendor originally thought of, because the reading on the milometer is suspect, because the alternator is what is called in the trade dead dodgy, and because he needs to get this car off his forecourt in order to make room for a specimen. Good runner: a vehicle which has not had the benefit of one careful lady owner. It will do you no credit at the Country Club, but will trundle you round the houses well enough. Sometimes abbreviated to a runner? In which case it may not be good enough to trundle you all the way round all the houses, because it needs some attention Needs some attention: needs a new gearbox, clutch, offside rear wing panel, windscreen wiper motor, door lock and window crank on the driver’s side; otherwise in A1 condition 30 ways of getting the sack used in 1991 by businesses which had to sack people. Perhaps they felt the jargon would somehow provide justification for their policy or reduce the trauma for the ex-work-force. In such cases jargon comes close to euphemisms career change, opportunity decruitment degrowing dehiring destaffing downsizing fоrce reduction indefinite idling involuntary separation negotiated departure selective separation work force imbalance correction Since the 70ies there has been a marked concern about the way jargon was being used to confuse or deceive by people in power/.There came a new term: doublespeak What is a Doublespeak? It is language which pretends to communicate, but really doesn’t. It is language which makes the bad seem good, the negative seem positive, the unpleasant appear attractive, or at least tolerable it is a language which avoids or shifts responsibility. Such language is not the product of carelessness or sloppy thinking; rather it is the result of clear thinking. It has been designed to change reality and to mislead. The Committee on Public Doublespeak whose aim is to expose and condemn this use of language gives annual awards to public figures who resort to semantic distortion/The winner of the first doublespeak Award was colonel Opfer, the us air force press officer in Cambodia After a US bombing raid he told reporters: ‘‘You always write it’s bombing, bombing, bombing. It’s not bombing. It’s air support” 1984. The US Department of State. It announced that the word killing would be replaced by “unlawful or arbitrary deprivation of life” POLITICAL CORRECTNESS The most sensitive domains are those associated with the way society talks about itself, and especially about the groups which are seen as disadvantaged and oppressed. These groups are race, gender, sexual minorities, ecology and physical or mental personal development groups. During the 1980s more and more people felt a wish to eradicate what they saw to be language discrimination. The movement got the name of PC (Political correctness). The word black was felt to be so sensitive that some activists of PC banned its use in all possible contexts, including blackboard and black pieces in chess. The generic use of man was widely attacked. Mentally handicapped people were to become people with learning difficulties. Disabled people were to be differently abled. Third World countries were to be developing nations. The critics of PC call it a lethal weapon for silencing anyone whose ideas you don’t like. The PC lexicon is pointless, they say/ as inequalities which the language reflects do not disappear with disappearance of a derogatory term/ Changes in the world are reflected in the language<,m but changes in the language do not bring about changes in the world.. At present, the speed at which fashions change in the use of PC terms suggests that it is not so easy to manipulate the language as reformers think. Dissatisfaction with one term tends to spread at its replacement: negro-black- Afro-American –African-American. By the way, according to 1991 survey over 70 % of black Americans would prefer the term black. PC proponents are often hold extremist and aggressive attitudes, and extreme positions quickly attract ridicule. e.g. alongside such terms as sexist, ableist, heightist the mocking terms like fattist and alphabetist were invented, the latter was to label the discrimination on the grounds of alphabetical order. If your name begins with an A, you are advantaged, if with Z, you are not.
JARGON There are numerous definitions of what jargon is, and some of them are: 1. Technical vocabulary or special idiom if special activity or group 2. Obscure and often pretentious language marked by a roundabout way of expression and use of long words So jargon is mostly considered to be a bad use of the language to be avoided at all costs, but the reality is that everyone uses jargon. It is an essential part of network of occupations and pursuits that make up a society. All jobs have their own language, their jargon, all hobbies require mastery of a jargon, all sports and games have their jargon. Each society group has its jargon. The phenomenon turns out to be universal and valuable. Why does it have a negative attitude? It can exclude as well as include. If excluded people may not be too concerned, when faced with an impenetrable wall of jargon, if the subject –matter has little relevance to their lives as in the case of hydrology or linguistics. But when the subject-matter is important for us and the speaker uses jargon? And if we suspect him of deliberate use of jargon, we feel injured. SLANG It is language of a highly colloquial type, below the level of educated standard speech, consisting either of new words or of current word employed in some special sense. It is also defined as language of vulgar or low type, and a special vocabulary or phraseology of a particular calling or profession. This sums up the paradox of slang very well. People can hardly avoid using it for everyone has some calling or profession, even if the call is only to watch football, collect stamps or go drinking. There’s upper –class slang alongside with lower-class slang, the slang of doctors and lawyers as well as the slang which is available to anyone as the most colloquial variety of the language. Let’s have a drink is colloquial, but not slang, let’s dip the bill ( погрузим клюв) is both. According to the British lexicographer Eric Partridge slang is used for the following reasons
EX; London Cockneys use rhyming slang, now almost outdated: Apples and pears – staircase Cain and Able – table Chalk Farm – arm Gawd forbids - kids ARGOT There is a close link between slang and argot, the special language of secretive social groups (thieves, criminals in general, gypsies, masons) NEOLOGISMS New words constantly come into being, due to the fact that new things and new notions appear constantly in the life of people. Neologisms are newly coined words or phrases, or new meanings of already existing words, or words borrowed from another language. They should be distinguished from nonce-words, created for temporary use to solve an immediate problem of communication. ) They may be used by a particular person in an individual situation and may never be used again. Neologisms, invented by public at large or individual, stay in the language for more or less durable period. Questions:
Task 8 1. Taboos are not normally used in speech because…
2. Euphemisms are… a. units which refer to the taboo topic in a vague and indirect way b. words which have a meaning opposite to taboo words c. words which are not used in a genteel society 3. The phrase “”the anticipated epistemological repercussions” belongs to… a. political correctness vocabulary b. general slang c. jargon 4. Doublespeak is used… a. to confuse and deceive the public b. to explain the aims of people in power c to achieve success in PR during elections 5. Political correctness is used in speaking … a. about differently disadvantaged minorities b. about indecent things in public c. of doctors in front of the patient 6. Doctors in front of the patient will use… a. slang b. jargon c. argot 7. Slang is… a. The colloquial part of jargon b. the aging part of neologisms c. the language of criminals 8. Neologisms are made up … a. by writers and poets b. by the nation c. by linguists Reading 1. Arnold I.V. The English Word M.,1986. Ch. 10 §10.7, ch.11, §11.1, 11.4, ch.12, § 12.5, 12.6. 2. Ginsburg R.S et andere. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. M., 1979. Ch.7, § 6, 7. 3. Антрушина Г.Б. Лексикология английского языка. М.,1985 9. Word-Building OUTLINE
There are two ways of enriching the vocabulary: a) vocabulary extension – new lexical items, and b) semantic extension: new meanings of existing words Vocabulary extension may be realized 1. Word-formation 2. Word-creation 3. Borrowings WORD-FORMATION The chief processes of English word- formation are affixation, conversion and compounding. 1. Affixation Before speaking of affixation, we should clarify the notions of derivational structure, derivational bases, and patterns. The nature, type and arrangement of the IC of words are its derivational structure. Re+ (marri+ (age)) - prefixational type, because its meaning is derived from the relations between the re –again, repeated action + marriage (Dis+ (courage)) +ment – suffixation type, because the first IC - (Dis+ (courage)) and the second IC – ment (something that discourages) is a suffix. According to a derivational structure all words are Simplexes, or simple, which derivationally cannot be segmented into IC. The stem (that part to which grammatical inflexions can be added) is semantically non-motivated. It can consist of one morpheme – root-stem, or it can be polymorphic (bound morphemes): public, theory Derivatives-motivated binary units, built in accordance with specific rules. Friendly+ness, child+ish, business+like. The basic elementary units of the derivational structure of words are Derivational base Derivational affixes Derivational patterns Derivational base is the constituent of a derived word which motivates and determines the individual lexical meaning of a derived word. Derivational bases fall into 3 classes: 1/ bases that coincide with morphological stems of different degree of complexity: foolish/, foolishness. Shouldn’t be mixes with stems. Stems are the starting point for grammatical forms, they have part – o f - the speech meaning, while derivational bases are starting point for different words, and do not have part – o f the speech meaning Derivationally stems can be 1.Simple: pocket, motion, retain 2. Derived stems: foolish. Manly 3. Compound stems. Both IC are stems themselves, simple or derived. Suit-case -two simple stems, pain-killer – simple and derived stems, aircraft installation –compound and derived stems 2/bases which coincide with word-forms. In English these are the present and past participles, and they form adjectives, adverbs and nouns: dancing-girl, time-saving, ear-splitting 3/ bases with coincide with word-groups of different degree of stability: longleggedness, snow-whitish, white-washer Derivational affixes Two functions 1/stem-building 2/ word-building. Builds a lexical unit different from its source unit. It builds another part of speech or another subset within the same part of speech. Derivational affixes indicate |
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