Учебно-методический комплекс дисциплины
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| part-of- the speech meaning of the word to which they belong with different degrees of exactitude. Prefixes are more vague in this respect, EX: en-,out- (endanger, enslave, outwit) are verb-classifiers. Un- – peculiar to adjectives, over-, non-, pre-, post- – lack part of the speech meaning, they are used for verbs and adjectives. suffixes are more or less definite Lexical meaning 1/ generic – peculiar to a set of affixes: agent – er, -or, -ist,-ian ( bigamist, musician) 2/individual – peculiar to a an individual affix and making it different from all other suffixes of a set with identical generic meaning: -ish, -like, -y have a generic meaning of resemblance, but – like denotes overall resemblance, ish- inner, most typical qualities, -y – size, form, shape derivational pattern A regular meaningful arrangement of derivational bases and affixes, with rigid rules on their order and nature. Representations of DP use the following symbols: V,a,n,d,num, ved ving –verbs, adjecrives, nouns, adverbs, numerals, past and present participles Sf, prf – suffixes and prefixes ( ) – bases → N,V - direction of motivation, that is, the resulting part of speech a)Representations may show the class membership of the IC and the direction of motivation: A + sf → N, prf + n → V b)Representations may show base classes and individual affixes: v+ -er → N c) they may also show lexico-semantic features: na male animal +-ess →N n container + -ful → B (handful, plateful,chestful) AFFIXATION is formation of words with derivational affixes to different types of bases. Derivation may be of different degrees: zero: is ascribed to simple words: dirt, luck, press 1st degree simple stems+ one derivational affix: dirty, lucky,pression 2nd degree dirtily, luckily, compression Affixation is divided into prefixcation and suffixation Prefixation There are about 51 prefixes in modern English word-formation. Some are original: -un,-dis,-pre,-post,-em,-non.Some are correlated with prepositions or preposition-like adverbs: out,-over.-up.-under ( semibound). Semi- prefixes: half-broken, ill-fed, well-fed, self-made Classification
The majority of prefixes are said to modify the lexical meaning of the word< not its part-of-the speech meaning. But there are some which do: be- + a, n, v → V, belittle, befriend, de- degulf, debus, em - embronze Suffixation Principles of classification 1/ part-of the speech formation
Within noun sf several groups can be singled out : According to subcategorisation of nouns: Abstract noun sf: bondage, expectancy, manhood, tension, sobriety Personal noun sf: grammarian, servant, bigamist, examinee, hypocrite Feminine person noun sf: actress, heroine, testatrix, cosmonETTE
2/ lexico-grammatical character of the base
3/ Semantic criterion Noun suffixes
2. Conversion Is the process of building a new word without using any formal signs, simply by changing its part of the speech characteristics. It can be qualified as a morphological method, as the new word acquires new grammatical forms, syntactical, as only syntactical context shows whether the word is to be taken as a noun or a verb. The basic forms of the original and the new word are identical. EX: paper – to paper, hammer – to hammer, finger – to finger etc. Other terms: zero derivation, root formation, transposition, functional change The phenomenon is wide-spread in English, and the reason is mostly that the majority of words do not have formal signs which show to what part of speech the word belongs. Most monosyllabic words with simple morphological structure can be involved in the process. It is the predominant method of verb-formation, is scarce in adjectives, as they are usually of complex morphological structure Semantic relations NOUN→ VERB
6. Locative: names of places, buildings, containers, etc→ actions or processes with characteristics of location: to bottle, to floor, to garage ADJECTIVE→ VERB 1. Resultative: Adjectives denoting state or property – the process of acquiring the property (in intransitive constructions): to thin, to idle 2. Causative: state or property – the process of causing the property (in transitive constructions): to blind (ослеплять к-л) VERBS→ NOUNS (deverbatives, verbal nouns, nomina acti)
Just like any words, conversions may be polysemantic: Dust –to remove dust; to put some dust on the surface: to dust up - to quarrel, fight; to dust smb’s jacket -to beat smb. 3. Compounding Made of two ICs, which are both derivational bases of all three types. STRUCTURALLY they are of rigidly fixed order and the second IC is the head-member, that is, it determines the part of the speech meaning of the word. The structural meaning of a distributional pattern also contributes to the meaning of a compound word. Word order: dog house, house dog; boat life – life boat; fruit-market – market fruit. РHONETICALLY they are also specific. They acquire a new stress pattern, either of the three: 1. stress on the first component: ´honeymoon, ´keyhole, ´oil-rich, and ´age-long 2. double stress, with first primary: ´blood-¸vessel, ´washing-¸machine 3. Double stress, equal: ´grass-´green, ´foot-´pump GRAFICALLY they are spelled together or with a hyphen. Not rigidly observed, the more so that phraseological units can be hyphonised. SEMANTICALLY they are mostly motivated. The degree of motivation may be complete: sky-blue, foot-pump, tea kettle. It may be partial: hand-bag, a flower bed. There is transparency of meaning, but the meaning of a compound word still dominates the individual meaning of the components. There is also lack of motivation: eye-wash (lie), fiddlesticks (nonsense), a night-cap (последняя порция спиртного перед сном). The meanings of the ICs are interdependent and serve as clues distinguishing the particular individual lexical meaning of each component: chess-board, school board. Principles of classification 1. Relations between the IC: coordination & Subordination Coordination (equality, one and the same semantic class: girl-friend, oak-tree) There are three subtypes:
Subordination The second element is dominant: stone-age, age-long They constitute the majority and productive
The type of the second element determines the part of the speech meaning – mostly they are nouns and adjectives
Correlations between compounds and free phrases Duty-bound, snow covered ------ covered with snow, bound by duty Story-teller, music lover – one who tells stories Snow white, blood-red – as white as snow Driving suit – suit for driving Door-handle – handle of a door Questions 1.What are the main ways of enriching the English vocabulary? 2.What are the principal productive means of word-formation? 3. What is a derivational structure? 4.What are the units of a derivational structure? 5.What are the three classes of derivational bases? 6.What types of lexical meaning do the affixes possess? 7. What are the principles of classification of prefixes? 8. What are the semantic classes of noun suffixes? 9. What are the major semantic correlations between the original noun and the converted verb? The original adjective and the resultant verb? The original verb and the noun which comes into being as a result of conversion? 10.What kind of motivation can be found in compound words? 11.What are the principles of classification of compound words? Task 9
3. Derivational affixes are used for… a. word-form building b. stem-building c. root-building 4. Prefixes are often correlated with… a. preposition-like adverbs b. adjectival nouns c. particles 5. Deverbal suffixes are those which… a. help to build verbs b. are added to any base to build verbs c. are added to verbal bases to form any new words 6. Usually the following words are involved in the process of conversion: a. of complex morphological structure b. monosyllabic words c. monosemantic words 7. Conversion is the predominant method of… a. verb-forming b. adjective-forming c. noun-forming 8. Additive, reduplicative and phonical variants are subtypes of compound words the IC of which are based on… a. coordination b. subordination c. dependence Reading
10. Lexical differenced of territorial variants of the English language (supplementary) OUTLINE 1. Historical, political and economic prerequisites for the expansion of the English language 2. American and British English: lexical differences and similarities 3. Local layers of vocabulary in Canadian, Australian and Indian English 1. Historical, political and economic prerequisites for the expansion of the English language The movement of English around the world began with the pioneering voyages to the Americas, Asia and the Antipodes. The first important step in the progress of English to its status as a world language took place in the last decades of the 16th century. At that time the number of English speakers was between 5 and 7 million, and almost all of them lived on the British Isles. By the reign of Elizabeth 11 the figure had become 250 million, and the majority of those 250 million English – speakers lived outside the British Isles, and most of those people were and continue to be Americans The present-day world status of English is the result of two factors: the expansion of British colonial power in the past, and the emergence of the United States as the leading economic power of the 20th and now the 21st centuries. It is the latter factor which continues to explain the position of the English language today. The USA contains nearly four times as many English mother-tongue speakers as the UK, and these two countries comprise 70 % of all English mother-tongue speakers in the world, not counting Creole varieties. Such dominance, with its economic and political underpinnings, gives the Americans a controlling interest in the way the language is likely to develop into a universally recognized World Standard English. American English already seems to have made considerable progress in this direction, and the possibility of Future World Standard English being based mostly on the American variant of the English language is most realistic All these speculations make it interesting to have a glance at what is called the American variety, with historical dimensions, its present state in comparison with British English, its major rival. The first expedition from England to the New World was sent in 1584 and was commissioned by Walter Raleigh, and proved to be a failure. A group of explores came to what is today North Carolina and established a small settlement, but by 1590 they had disappeared, and the mystery of their disappearance has never been solved. The first permanent English settlements date from 1607 in what is now known as the state of Virginia, and also along the coast and on nearby islands, such as Bermuda. Then, in November 1620, the first group of Puritans, 35 members of the English Separatist Church arrived on the Mayflower in the company of 67 other settlers. They settled at what is now Plymouth. Massachusetts. Later they were called The Pilgrim Fathers, meaning they were the fathers of a new nation. Their settlement proved to be very successful, and by 1640 about 25,000 immigrants had come and found new homes there. The two settlements – one in Virginia and one in the north, in New England had different linguistic consequences. The southern colonists came from west counties of England and brought with them the accents of Shakespearian English. The typical features are the z voicing of s-sound and the r strongly pronounced after vowels. Such accents can still be heard in remote places both in England and America. Plymouth colonists came from the east of England. They didn’t pronounce an r after vowels, as in present day Received Pronunciation. This feature is still a feature of speech of people from New England. Thus, Modern American speech has preserved features characteristic of the speech of the 17th century England The word not is pronounced as nat in America. Several older words and meanings peculiar to the Middle Ages British English are now standard in American English: mad-angry, fall-autumn. The phrase I guess, which is condemned in Britain as an Americanism can be traced back to Middle English. 2. American and British English: lexical differences and similarities The present day American English differs considerably from British English, but it is not easy to give an accurate number of points of contrast, for two main reasons:
Nevertheless, a recently published dictionary by David Grote has some 6500 entries and deals only with British English for American readers. Lexical distinctions between the lexicons of the two regions can be classified in the following way:
These words may reflect cultural differences and there are no synonyms in the other variety. Am E: Ivy League, Groundhog Day (день сурка), or Br E A-level certificate;
Br E. Am E current account checking account estate car station wagon block of flats apartment building tin can sweets candy curtains drapes reception clerk desk clerk scotch whisky
b) there are words identical in meaning and form, but one of the words (or both) may have a synonym absent in the other variant: Br E Am E undertaker undertaker=mortician pharmacy=chemist’s pharmacy=drugstore
The word chip is found both in American and British English. But the UK chips is equivalent to US French fries, and the American chips is equivalent to British crisps. EX: a British professor is not equivalent to a US professor, because the American category divides into three levels: full professor, associate professor and assistant professor. In Britain the rank below professor is reader, then senior lecturer, then lecturer. All in all there are three ranks of professors in America and four ranks in Great Britain. d) There are words which have at least one common meaning and some additional meanings which are specific to either British or American English: Caravan - Br. E & Am. E путешественники в пустыне Br.E – прицеп. Most idioms have no equivalents in the two major variants. If an American hears The Play was a real bomb, he is in no doubt: it was a total disaster. An Englishman will have an impression that the play was a tremendous success. Most idioms have to be interpreted for there are no equivalents in the other variant: Br E Am E hard cheese ( =bad luck) right off the bat (=with no delay) drop a brick (=make a blunder) feel like 2 cents(=ashamed) in queer street (=in debt) out of left field(=unexpectedly) There are few grammatical differences between educated British English and American English. AE prefers have to have got for possession, and regular forms of the past simple of irregular verbs, if there is choice, there are some special past tense forms (dove), the simple past is preferred to the present perfect. Word order in noun phrases may be different: Hudson River (The River Thames), a half hour instead of half an hour. Clausal patterns may be different: come take a look in Am E and come and take a look in Br E. The differences in the use of prepositions are fewer than similarities. Only few examples will suffice; Br E Am E it’s twenty to four It’s twenty of four it’s five past eight It’s five after eight I haven’t seen her for ages I haven’t seen her in ages I’ll see you at the weekend I’ll see you over the weekend on Mondays we take the bus Mondays we take the bus 3. Local layers of vocabulary in Canadian, Australian and Indian English Each of these variants of English are characterized by peculiarities in vocabulary. An essential feature is a high percentage of borrowings from the languages of the native people -names of localities, local flora and fauna, weather conditions, traditions and festivities, peculiarities of social and religious make-up. Besides, the arrival of colonisers gave rise to new folklore, institutional differences (politics, banking, legal systems, armed forces, sports, and honours), new traditions and holidays which were not to be found in the old country. Canadianisms are the following: The use of many words and expressions originating in Canada itself: Borrowing from native American languages (direct or through French) A few have become part of World Standard English: caribou, chesterfield (sofa), kayak, kerosene, parka Terms of Canadian culture: riding (a political constituency), first nations (the indigenous people), bannock (a type of pancake), the prime minister|premier distinction (federal|provincial) Australian English At the lexical level, it has been established that there are over 10,000 original items. Some of which have become part of World standard English ( flying doctor, pavlova).Many are biogeographic or denote farming or mining processes. Banksias (tree), barramundi (fish) black swan, brush (dense vegetation) bush (natural vegetation), galah (bird), and station (ranch) Among many general words are footpaths (pavement), frock (dress), goodday (hallo), layby (hire purchase) weekender (holiday cottage) Well-known slang items include beaut (beautiful), biggie (big one), cobber (friend), crook (unwell, irritable), dincum (genuine, true) drongo (fool), poofter (an effeminate male), Sheila (girl) AE is famous for its vivid idioms. Scarce as a rocking horse manure, look like a consumptive kangaroo, full as a goog (egg) (drunk), amber fluid for beer. AE doesn’t have a great deal of aboriginally derived vocabulary. The Aborigines of Australia were not very numerous when the Europeans arrived. The Aborigines were nomadic, contact was occasional, and there were many language differences. With over 200 languages in use at the time, as a result, only few aboriginal words came into English, most of them being plant and animal names, such as kangaroo and coala, dingo, kookaburra. Among the exceptions are boomerang, corroborree (a ceremonial dance) and cooee (a loud call to attract attention) Indian English In terms of numbers of English speakers, the Indian subcontinent ranks third in the world, after the US and UK. This is due to the special position the language holds in India in particular where some 4% of the people (over 30 million) make regular use of English and due to the fact that there are considerable numbers of English speakers in the other countries in the region in general. English is spoken in Bangladesh. Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan that together with India hold about a fifth of the word’s population. The variety spoken in the subcontinent is known as South Asia English. It is about 200 years old and one of the most distinctive varieties of the English speaking world. The origins of the variety certainly lie in Britain. The first regular British contact came in 1600. At that time The British East India Company was set up, by a group of London merchants who were given a trading monopoly be Elizabeth the1st. It established its first trading stations in Surat, and later in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta. In 1856 after the Indian Mutiny the Company was abolished and its powers were handed over to the Crown. During the period of British sovereignty until independence in 1947, English gradually became the language of administration and education throughout the subcontinent. The language question attracted special attention during the early 19th century when the colonial administration debated the kind of educational policy that should be introduced. A turning point was the acceptance of a Minute, written by Thomas Macauly in 1832, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India. In universities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras English is the primary medium of instruction. In India, English now is recognized as an “associate” official language with Hindi the official language. It is also recognized as the official language of four states (Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura) and 8 Union territories. In Pakistan it is an associated official language, and though it has no official status in the other countries, it is widely used as a medium of international communication. So English retained it’s standing within Indian society and is used within the legal system, government administration, secondary and higher education, the armed forces, the media, business and tourism. Since the 1960s much attention has focused on what has been called the ongoing “indianization” of English. Cultural distance from countries of the Inner circle (US, UK, Ireland Canada, Australia, New Zealand) is responsible for the changes English must undergo to meet the communicative needs of communities such as Indian, which belong to a different civilization. Of course SAE is not homogeneous, for there are many varieties spoken in the region, from pidgin forma, known as butler or Babu English to educated SE and RP. There are also geographical and social sub varieties, some of which have developed over a long period of time. As a result, modern SAE has thousands of distinctive lexical items, some deriving from local Indian languages, some new combinations of English words, or English words with new meanings Very often a text in a newspaper report may be absolutely unintelligible to an outside English speaker, especially if the subject is local or specific. As an example, let’s take newspaper matrimonial advertisements, in the culture of India, religion, caste, colour, region and economic status traditionally play a major role in marriage arrangements. As a consequence, matrimonial advertisements are very different in style from the equivalent “lonely hearts” items in the western press, and use very different vocabulary. Many items, which seem to be familiar, have to be reinterpreted to be understood correctly: Bride with a male child – is a widow or divorcee with a son, mentioned in view of a priority given in Indian culture to a male heir, whether natural or adopted Broad-minded –means in the West “in relation to sexual practices”, while in India it refers to the readiness to accept modern values while retaining core values of Indian morality Clean-shaven- indicates that the person is Punjabi, but no longer bearded Fair – means “relatively light in color”, that is, the person is still dark-skinned, though not markedly so, while in the West it means – white skin and light hair Full particulars -would be an astrological reference, a request for a horoscope Good- looking – in India means average appearance, while in the West – pretty or beautiful Respectable, well-placed and well-established – carry implication of economic status: highly respectable family means very rich Sweet-natured = hints at a bride’s willingness to fit into an Indian joint family Vegetarian = has a less flexible sense than is usual in the West. The norm is to exclude fish and eggs as well as meat South Asia has been the source of several words in World Standard English: Bandana, Brahmin, bungalow, calico, caste-mark, chakra, cheetah, cheroot, chintz, chit, chutney, coolie, curry, dacoit, guru, jungle, juice, mogul, nirvana, rajah, rupee, sahib, verandah, yoga Questions
Task 10
Reading
Ключи к тестам
РАЗДЕЛ 4. СЛОВАРЬ ТЕРМИНОВ (ГЛОССАРИЙ) |
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