Учебно-методический комплекс дисциплины
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| § 26-31 § 32,33,36,39 § 40-43 2. Arnold I.V. The English Word.M.,1986 Chapter 3 § 3.4 – 3.6 Chapter 4 § 4.1 – 4.3 Chapter 10 § 10.1,10.2
6. Phraseology. Free phrases, semi-fixed combinations and phraseological units. Principles of classification OUTLINE
1. Basic features of word-groups: lexical and grammatical valencies, motivation As me have stated, lexicology deals with morphemes, words, and word-groups. Word-groups can be subdivided into two types: free word-groups and set –phrases (set-expressions, word-equivalents, phraseological units, and phraseological fusions). Other terms: фразеологические единицы или идиомы, идиофразеоматические единицы, фразеологические единицы, фразеологизмы у А.В.Кунина, фразеологические сращение, фразеологические единства, фразеологические сочетания у В.В.Виноградова. The components of free word-groups possess a certain semantic and structural independence. To buy food is a free word-group. Its total meaning is composed of the meanings of both components. The component can vary grammatically in accordance with the needs of communication: bought the food, will buy some food: the WG can be freely expanded: to buy expensive food, to buy food unwillingly etc. Its components may be substituted: to sell food, to buy fruit The second type of WG are stable, their elements (components ) are fixed, very often there is no grammatical variability, they are ready –made, speakers do not invent them, they are used as words, their component do not have an in independent meaning. The total meaning of a WG doesn’t consist of the individual meaning of the components: a wall flower, red tape, red herring, in a nutshell, to be in the red, ups and downs, that’s a horse of another colour, right from the horse’s mouth, to be in deep waters etc. There are no fixed boundaries between these two groups. There are a lot of transitory cases, the so called semi-fixed combinations, where the substitution is restricted, and restriction is imposed on lexico-semantic grounds. In the phrase to go to school the second element may be substituted by a number of words, but all of them are subject to the same semantic limitations: the must be names of places? where definite functions are performed: to go to market, hospital, prison, courts etc. Lexical valency (collocability) is the ability of a word to form different combinations with other words. ЕX. An opinion. To express, voice, to have, hold, to change an opinion: good, bad, low, high opinion of smb or smth: public opinion, political opinions; in my/his/your opinion etc. Words habitually collocated in speech are called cliché. Lexical valences of different LSVs of a polysemantic word are different. Heavy in the meaning of “abundant, strong, larger than usual’ is used in collocations heavy rain, heavy crops, heavy work: in the meaning “difficult to digest” is used in the collocations heavy food, heavy meal: still, there are restrictions, which cannot be logically explained: why cannot we say heavy snows or heavy sausage respectively in the 1st and 2nd meanings? Grammatical valency is the ability of a word to appear in specific syntactical pattern. The word pleasant may precede a noun or a NP, or may be followed by an infinitive. It may also be preceded by and adverb. So pleasant+ N, NP, Adverb +pleasant, pleasant + Vinf are syntactical patterns which are based on grammatical valency. Grammatical valency of a word is determined by the part of speech the word belongs to. Each part of speech has its specific grammatical valency. Words of one part of speech are not homogeneous; they are subdivided into different groups in accordance with their peculiarities. Each group within one and the same part of speech may have specific grammatical valence. For example, grammatical valence of modal verbs has certain peculiarities in comparison with other verbs. There could be idiosyncratic peculiarities. Take the words rather and enough. Clever enough not to do smth( enough is used in postposition to a modified adjective), he was rather a dear( comp. he was an old dear) Word-groups with their lexical and grammatical valence are minimal lexical and syntactic sets to bring out different meanings of a polysemantic word. Motivation Word-groups are lexically motivated if the total meaning of the group is deducible from the meaning of the components. If not, then WG are lexically non-motivated: comp. a free country, a free hand. Easy work – easy mark (a foolishly generous person, one from whom it is easy to get money) Word- groups can be structurally- motivated and structurally non-motivated. In the first case the general categorical meaning is deducible from the pattern a WG: word-order, grammatical forms of the components: red dress, red herring. Motivation may be of different degrees: green fruit, green house, green belt, green-eyed, green fingers, the long green, green power ( prestige and power money can buy ) the green-horn ( novice). So the border-line between motivated and non-motivated WG cannot be defined Non-motivated WG are called phraseological units or idioms. They are not homogeneous, as the degree of motivation is different. 2. Phraseology in British and American Linguistics In American and English linguistics there is no special brunch of linguistics studying PU and miscellaneous dictionaries of idioms are not based on clear-cut principles, the semantic peculiarities are not investigated, and PU can be grouped in accordance with their origin, grammatical structure or topically. Logan P. Smith, for example, in his Words and Idioms regards PU based on contrast, repetition, regular combinations of two words; heads or tails, rain or shine, again and again, neck and neck, cut and run, dust and ashes; on alliteration: bag and baggage (со всеми пожитками), rack and ruin (полное разорение). He also regards PU based on seamen’s vocabulary, metaphorically interpreted, fishermen’s jargon, hunting, races, domestic animals, atmospheric phenomena, fire, food, etc The modern theory of non-free word-groups was mostly developed in this country. The first attempt to investigate and classify the PU was taken by Ch.Bally, the Swiss Linguist. Further contributions were made by our home linguists V.V. Vinogradov, A.I.Smirnitsky, Larin and A.V.Koonin, N.N.Amosova. 3. Principles of classification Can be based on different criteria; criterion of stability and lack of motivation, criterion of function, criterion of context In accordance with the criteria of stability and lack of motivation (idiomaticity) PFU are divided into: Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated, and therefore have complete stability of lexical components and syntactical pattern: with a high hand, apple sauce (nonsense), a pretty kettle of fish, that’s a horse of another colour. To eat humble pie (to accept insult or shame), to be full of beans (to be in high spirits) .Very often they consist of words, which do not exist in the language as separate units: Tit for Tat, helter-skelter( at a fast speed, but in confusion), hither and thither, harum-scarum (careless, wild, disorderly or reckless) fuddy-duddy (a person whose ideas are old-fashioned), null and void ( having no power, not valid). They are specific for every language and cannot be translated literally: EX: you are so fresh. You started to kiss me immediatel (ты был такой наглец. Сразу же полез целоваться). Wrong? Literal translation: ты был такой молодой, неопытный. Instead of И вот в двух словах моя жизнь (in a nutshell) there is a wrong translation: Вот моя жизнь в ореховой скорлупке. In a film with Steven Sigal the operation Bright boy is translated as яркий мальчик instead of операция "Умник". Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated. Their meaning can be understood through metaphorical associations: a snake in the grass, to grease smb’s fist, to play a lone hand, to show one’s teeth, Fish in the troubled waters( take advantage of a troubled or confusing situation). There is a comparatively high degree of stability of the lexical components, though limited synonymic substitutions are possible. Some are international, and can be translated literally Phraseological collocations are mostly motivated, but there is a certain stability/ They are very much like cliché, and the meaning of a WG is perceived as semantically inseparable: meet the demand, take measures, put forward the question, as a matter of fact, shake hands. This classification is based mostly on works of V.V.Vinogradov Other terms and classifications are possible, according to the choice of the main criteria Functional criterion, suggested by A.I.Smirnitsky PHU function as word-equivalents, they are semantically and stylistically equivalent to words, and in sentences they perform the function of a single member of a sentence. On the bases of their semantic and grammatical inseparability they can be classified into Noun equivalents: pie in the sky (рай на небесах, пустые обещания), pins and needles (кoлoтье в конечностях после онемения).I.V.Arnold suggests subdivisions N+N – May Day, wall flower, the Iron Maiden, a paper war (полемика газетная, информационные войны) N’s+N – baker’s dozen, Hobson’s choice, fool’s gold (медный колчедан) Ns+N – ladies’ man N+prep+N – eye for eye, means to an end, oil of palms (взятка), a pain in the neck N+A: N+and+N: mice and men (все живое), A+N: cold comfort, a hot number, nest egg (saving to be used in the future) A+A: near and dear (близкие люди) Adjective equivalents: spick and span (bright, clean and tidy) Subdivisions A+and+A: rough and ready, open and shut (простейший, несложный),high and mighty ( высокомерный, горделивый) as+A+as+N: as dry as dust (скучный, неинтересный), nutty as a fruitcake pr+N – on paper ( theoretically,by looks), on the blink ( faulty, malfunctioning) N+ N -neck and neck Verb equivalents: to run amoc, live from hand to mouth, hold your hand (support), blow one’s mind (ловить кайф, взбудоражит), peak and pine (чахнуть, томиться, изводиться) Subdivisions: V+N: sink the shop (избегать профессиональных разговоров, rake dustbins (черпать сведения из сомнительных источников), to dust smb’s coat (избить, исколошматить) to pass the buck V+and+V: pack and peel (иметь дело, якшаться/), choose and pick/ hem and haw (to pause or hesitate while speaking) V+A: to see red, to sit pretty V+subordinate clause: to know which side one’s bread is buttered on Adverb equivalents: for two pins (запросто, по малейшему поводу, вот-вот), on the side (тайком, по секрету) Subdivision: N+N A+N: cold turkey (immediately, without warning) A+ Vinf Fit to be tied (Very hard) he was laughing fit to be tied prp+N: up to one’s neck, by a nose (еле-еле, с грехом пополам), in person, in a nutshell, on the nose (just right, exactly) Adv+prp+N: up to par (not bad), out of hand cj+clause: before one has finished ( sooner or later) N+A: point blank A+A: high and low (везде) Criterion of context. The classification is based on Amosova’s principle of fixed context. She proceeds from the idea that LSVs of a polysemantic words can be realized only in certain contexts. Some meanings are realized in variable contexts, but some meanings are realized in very limited or unique contexts, or fixed contexts. Meanings realized in fixed contexts are meanings of the components of phraseological units the peculiarity is the treatment of components of a PU as components of a free word-group. That is, components of PU have meanings of their own, The only difference from other free LSVs is that the meanings occur only in very limited specific contexts. EX: Paper Бумага, газета, деньги, банкноты, документы, доклад – all these meanings are free denominative meanings of a polysemantic word paper. They can be realized in a number of different contexts, but the meaning “pretending to be powerful but actually harmless” is realized only in the fixed context, in collocation with the word tiger: paper tiger – is a person who seems to be powerful but actually is nobody. One of the meanings of the adjective thin “uncomfortable, distasteful” is realized only in fixed context to have a thin time, and the meaning “stupid” is realized only in the context thick-headed Normally we would treat paper tiger and other word-group as phraseological units, where the meanings of the components are non-existent, where meaning of the PU is not composed of the meaning of the components because components do not have any meaning, as is with words: the meaning of the word library is not composed of the meaning of lib and rary, simply because these element are not meaningful. In Amosova’s theory the components are meaningful, only their meanings are never realized outside fixed contexts. In this theory PU are divided into 2 groups phrasemes Two-member word-groups in which one of the members has specialized unique meaning dependent on the second component, which serves as a clue to the particular meaning of the first component. The second component is usually used in its central meaning: close contest – упорная борьба; fat chance (little or no possibility, almost no chance); house detective idioms Word-groups characterized by the impossibility of attaching meaning to the members of the group taken in isolation. Idioms are grammatically and semantically inseparable units: to hit the rods – ехать зайцем в товарном поезде, to bat the breeze – трепаться, сплетничать. Very often they are homonymous with free word combinations: to let the cat out of the bag, to bring home the bacon –‘преуспеть’ , to bite off more than one can chew - зарваться, не рассчитать своих сил, переоценить себя. Questions
Task 6
a. both free-word groups and phraseological units b.free word-groups c.phraseological units
3. Phraseology was first studied by…
4. V.V. Vinogradov’s classification is based on…
5. Phraseological unities (by Vinogradov) are partially motivated…
7. The classification into phrasemes and idioms is determined by… a. a minimal context b. part-of-the speech function c. stability of components Reading
Chapter 9, § 9.1-9.4, § 9.6
Word-groups and phraseological units § 1, 2, 9 § 11-19 3.Антрушина Г.Б и др. Лексикология английского языка. М.:1991 гл.12,13 4.Арбекова Т.И. Лексикология английского языка. М.:1977 с.95-199 5.Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь (ред. В.Н. Ярцева) 6. Кунин А.В.Англо-русский фразеологический словарь. М.: 1984. Введение 7.Амосова Н.Н. Основы английской фразеологии. Л.:1963 с.22-57 7. The semantic structure of lexicon. Macro (global) relations within the lexicon: partitive and hyper-hyponymical relations. Microstructures: synonyms and oppositives – antonyms and conversives OUTLINE 1. The notion of a structured nature of a vocabulary 2. Global structures: partitive relations 3. Global structures: hyper-hyponymic relations 4. Microstructures: synonyms 5. Microstructures: oppositives 1. The notion of a structured nature of a vocabulary |
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