История Великий Шелковый путь. Его важнейшая роль в истории Казахстана Абдибек А. С
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Comparative analysis of democratization in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia Transition to democracy 1989-1995 Kudinova E.V. Kiev Slavonic University (International relations, 4 academic year) Course coordinator: O.M. Verchovcova, associate professor In 1989 'The Third Wave' of democracy identified by Huntington gained further strength with the collapse of communism in East Europe and gathering pace of political change in the Soviet Union. In this context the collapse of the Soviet Union was undoubtedly the most important event, but the swift termination of communist's rule and the onset of democratization within East Europe as a whole also hold particular interest in terms of comparative analysis. The comparative analysis of democratization processes was a flourishing branch of political science. Among the post-communistic states, in which, the process of democratization had begun and accomplishing today - Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary took first place. In this work, above all, I'll focus on these countries. I will try to make comparative analysis of democratization and transition to democracy of these countries. 1.1 The aim of study The task of this researching is to show the chief aspects the problems of democratization in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. I'll try to shed the light on the reasons of democratic changes in these countries and describe the influence of international factors on the democratic process in the East-Central Europe. 1.2 Problem of the essay What are the differences of these countries? What are the peculiarities of democratic process in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary? I will try to explore it in present researching, plus to distinguish common and distinct features of democratization in chosen countries. Thus, structurally researching is distributed on 2 chapters. The first chapter devoted theoretical matters and approaches of democratization; the second about description the process of democratization and transition to democracy in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia; 1.3 Background After the 1 World War an independent Poland re-emerged and these experience of nation-building left the impact on the national traditions. Catholicism-and the role of Catholic Church- was deeply connected with the national existence, since it was the only bulwark against the imperial powers represented by the Orthodox and the Protestant churches as well. The founder of the modern Polish state was General Joseph Pilsudski, who as 'the father of nation', also assumed the role of strong President against the weak parliamentary and fragmented party system in the interwar period. Poland is the only country that was always closer to an authoritarian than to totalitarian regime, because of the influence of the Catholic Church. [9]. The tradition of resistance to state socialism and Soviet rule was also much stronger in Poland then in other countries of the CEE. Therefore, the transition to democracy for the East-Central Europe (ECE) was initiated by Poland in the late 1980s and in general Poland has been the trendsetter in political developments for the entire region since the early 1980s. In Hungary in 1960s Hungarians resisted to the Soviet external empire forced Janos Kadar to produce the most liberal version of state socialism in the region. In 1970s economy and second society had very dynamic developments. Hungarians were allowed to travel to the west and return home with the ideas and skills of the western economy. As a result unlike in other East Central European countries, some kind of a 'consumer society' with a relatively large middle class emerged in Hungary. As Lins and Stepan note 'By the mid 1980s Hungary was the world's leading example of mature post-totalitarism'. [9]. The 1980s saw further socio-economic liberalization with some democratization. In Czechoslovakia interwar period was the most democratic state among the Central European countries, but the Czechs had a paternalistic attitude towards Slovakia which again provoked the development of Slovak independence movements. After the brief existence of an independent Slovak State during the Second World War under German Protection the unity of Czechoslovakia was restored in 1944. In the post-war period democratization efforts reached their peak in 1968 but were suppressed by a Soviet intervention, producing one of the most concervatic Stalinist regimes in ECE, which lasted until the late 1980. 1.4 Methods and materials The key of my study is to make a comparative analysis of democratization process in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. In the enormous literature on democratization and transition to democracy I include a large selection of the relevant literature in this reference section. The first one, "Transition from authoritarian rule" was edit be three eminent scholars (Guillernio, O'Donnell, Philippe Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead) it has become theoretical foundation of the current democratization theory. The second, "Transition to democracy", edit by Groffrey Pridham in 1995, collected the most interesting papers on the "third wave" of democratization. This term was coined by Samuel Huntington and became famous from his book 'The Third Wave: Democratization in the late Twentieth Century (1991). Of course, I refer to the articles, mainly, by Dankwart A. Rustow 'Transition to democracy', Robert Dahl. 1.4 Theories and approaches of democratization What is democratization? What explains why some countries are democratic and others are not? Democratization is important field of political science and a lot of scholars offered their theories and conceptions to study their field. There's no consensus of definition of democracy. Samuel P. Huntington distinguished three waves of democratization. A wave of democratization is a grotip of transition from non-democratic to democratic regions that occur within a specific period of time; First wave in 1828-1926; second in 1943-1962; third in 1974-1991. My researching scopes the third wave it's the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe at the end of 1980, and also the end of dictatorships in South Europe (1970), of military dictatorships in much countries of Latin America (1980). Joseph Schumpeter definition is minimalistic procedure of democracy. He used minimalism. He argued that the hallmark of democracy is elections, he focuses on competitions elections. [15]. According to Robert Dahl democracies can be viewed as a system of government it have to have competition, participation in the selection of leaders; level of civic liberties it includes also the right to vote, freedom of expression, free and fair elections, the right to political leaders, the freedom to join organization and form it. [3]. There are various phases of democratization: 1.Liberalization - the dictatorial system in authoritarian or totalitarian system is going through a process of differentiation. 2. Transition - the continuation of liberalization, opening up for electoral democracy. 3. Consolidation — a process by which the institutions rules and attitudes come to constitute the only political power. I follow one of the phases of democratization - transition. Transition to democracy is the process by which a non-democratic regime engages in a series of changes and result is in the establishment of democracy, as Rustow describe in his article. [14]. So, I can observe it on example of ECE countries. The field of democratization has been dominated by approaches: 1. Structural approach emphasizing on changing structures of power favorable to democratization. 2. Modernization approach emphasizing a number of social and economic requisites either associated with exiting liberal democracies necessary for successful democratization. But more closer in researching of democratization in the ECE, in my opinion, is the transition approach emphasizing political process and elite initiatives and choices that account for moves from authoritarian rule to liberal democracy. It's also named actororianted approach in which the strategic choices, actions of political elites play the dominant role in democratization. It's to democratic transition and I follow this approach. The elite approach, however, is often rather "voluntaristic" and fails to shed the light on the reasons for elite decisions in some cases just presenting them as a formalistic "game" between or among different actors in the democratization process. In Transition from Authoritarian Rule Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter focused on elites. I think it's important to study elites, dispositions, calculations and pacts between the regimes of Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. [10]. 2. Analysis 2.1 The reasons of democratic changes in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia A process of democratization is heavy and of long duration. A lot of scholars consider that he began in East-Central Europe in the moment of falling of the undemocratic political system. In Poland, that symbolic event considered Round table in 1989, in Hungary it is removal of command KL Grusha in August of 1989, in Czechoslovakia the November events of 1989, which the crash of the old regime came as a result of. 1989 year is characterized with the process of growth of crisis and falling undemocratic regimes which were part of soviet camp. How to explain such failure of communism? How did it happen that the system had tested a crash practically in the entire countries of communist camp almost at one and the same time? What were the events in the East-Central Europe at the end of 1989? S. Huntington selects a few reasons which caused the third wave of democratization. He talks about the united reasons - even development, snow-ball effect. [6]. No doubt the best, in case in relation to the Central Eastern Europe is the conception of snow-ball effect, which is also named as the effect of domino. It foresees that successful democratic changes in one country give an incitement to the changes in other. Events do not take a place simultaneously, but in a certain sequence and result in the decline of the next authoritarian regimes. Leaders and elites of societies, which are the initiators of transformation, as it was in Poland, and then in Hungary, add a courage and specified direction of actions managing political groups, The Polish researcher Boguslava Dobek-Ostrowska selects a few groups of factors which became the reasons of radical political and economic changes in the East-Central Europe. The first group of factors is related to the problems of legality of the communist system. At first managing elites used ideology as basic mean for retaining of the undemocratic regime. However, with deepening of economic crisis their role diminished. In Poland, and then in Hungary began to be formed anticommunist opposition. [4]. Under the influence of activity of opponents of communism, the thoughts of rulings elites began to changes-It follows to agree with S. Huntington's statement, that democratization of Central Eastern Europe of the end of 1980s was predetermined by change in a soviet policy, after coming to power M. Gorbacheya in 1985. He expressly let the communist elites to understand that USSR wouldn't interfere in the internal affairs of country's region, if they would put their attempts to reformation. Gorbachev supported all of reformative tendencies and tried to influence on those leading groups, which did not wish to allow any changes, for example, as in Czechoslovakia. Gorbachev’s policy helped to open the way to democratization of the system. However, it should be remembered, that as far as in most countries of soviet block an external factor played a basic role, so in Poland and Hungary changes began from the middle, and external factors had second-rate character. [5]. The next factor, which played an important role in determining the processes of democratization in communist countries, above all in Poland and Hungary, there, was an economic crisis. Dominating the political and ideological systems blocked introduction of economic and political reforms. Only the decline of communism did possible deep changes and passing to the market. The Third Wave of 70 and 80 years S. Huntingdon determines as a catholic wave. Influence of catholic religion and catholic clergy, especially in Poland and Hungary plays a central role in the attempts of change of the system. Poland which is considered as a catholic country is the special interesting in this case. Pontificate of Jan Paul II put beginning the obvious fight of church against authoritarianism and totalitarianism. That opposition and communist power reached to the first in a that region understanding, is the large merit of the Polish church, which, as a mediator, effectively hastened a democratic process in Poland [16]. 2.2 Peculiarities of democratic processes in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia The purpose of this chapter is clearing up the process of democracy in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Researchers select a few types of critical moments of transition to democracy, one of them there is the waiver. The waiver of leadership frequently related with activity of group of reformers, that is supporters of political changes in the middle of leading authoritarian environment. A waiver of power is characteristic for two countries - Poland and Hungary. In 1980s in Poland appeared the strongest in this region of Europe opposition in the figure of Solidarity with leader Lekhom Valensoy. The role of reformers was played by United Working party of Poland of (UWPP) at the head with its first secretary V. Yaruzel'skim. Due to a dead earnest of his command was achieved the official understanding with solidarity during negotiations at the «Round table». This was an exceptional event not only for Poland, but also for events in the East-Central Europe on the whole. By the characteristic element of political refuses there was a high level of achievement of compromise and understanding in the group of persons which negotiated and presented as opposition so leading elite. Consequently, in 1989 at the «Round table» was signed the final document of «Falling of the communist system in Poland and permission to the USSR on such system changes». He fastened foundations of the new democratic political system in Hungary [8]. Events in Hungary in many cases were the mirror reflection of processes which took place in Poland. Behavior of Poland gave inspiration Hungarians. A difference between Poland and Hungary in the first half 1980s consists of, that Polish leading party lost legitimacy of power, but, in Hungary ideological legitimacy was replaced by legitimacy, which was achieved economically. Hungarians supported a command Kadara (First Secretary of Hungary) for the sake of improvement of standard of life. A situation changed after 1986, when began an economic crisis. In August of 1988, Yanosh Kadar left the post of the first Secretary and his place was occupied by Karol Grosh. For example of Poland in February in 1989 took place the plenum of central committee of Hungarian Socialistic Working party (HSWP), on which a compromise is achieved between parties by conservatives, from a former command Kadara, and by the representatives of Center (Grosh). It was certain, that a transitional period to democracy would last till 1995. The next common feature of Polish and Hungarian roads to democracy there is completion of waiver period of communist elites, from the old regime, by elections to the parliament. In Poland they took place in 1989 and in Hungary in March of 90th. In both cases it should be noted, that in the case of waiver absence things have come to a head. The breaking point to democracy is characteristic for Czechoslovakia. To counterbalance Poland and Hungary communist elite of Czechoslovakia did not allow opening of the system and liberalization of policy. Position of power showed up in intimidation and repressions against a population which didn't agree with dominating situation. However, it was not succeeded for government to strangle the waves of public dissatisfaction, which grew from autumn 1988. Events of Poland and Hungary, no doubt, supported the opposition moods of Czech society; a critical moment came only on the 24 of November, 1989, when Karel Urbank became a general secretary. In the first half of December of 1989 began negotiations between the representatives of opposition and authoritarian elite; their result was falling of power of leading elite and opening of phase of democratization of the system, hi 1990 took place the first free elections, the greater amount of voices were collected by a command of V. Gavel. New elites got control and management of the demoejatizHtlorrprocesses, and establishment of democracy. The mutual features of processes of democratization in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary, was absence of violence. Each of those societies was had negative historical experience, but however as ruling so opposition sides tried to untie a conflict by achievement of consent. [7]. Negotiations and compromise is the next mutual feature. As in these entire countries actually negotiations and achievements of compromise made the kernel of the first stage of transition to democracy, it allows us to talk, about contract democracy, especially in Poland and in Hungary. Decision about the lead through of parliamentary election meant the final end of the communist regime. Consequently, democratization of these countries is the process opened in future. Therefore hardness to do the complex analysis of changes which take a place. Transformation of the political systems takes a place not evenly. The farthest Poland, Czech and Hungary, moved up in this direction. Slovakia, after disintegration of Czechoslovakia in 1993 hardness overcomes obstacles. Poland was the first country which stepped on the way of changes and in this connection bore most losses. Czech and Slovakia, which in this group, carried out system changes the last most availed from experience of Poland and Hungary. Conclusion The Great transformation of the East-Central European countries in 1989 - the "year of the century" or the miraculous year - changed the entire world beyond recognition. For several years the events in these regions have attracted worldwide attention, since their transformation generated global changes. The collapse of the bipolar world system, the Old World Order, opened the way for systemic change in the ECE region. At the same time, the East-Central European countries were very active in initiating the collapse of the Soviet Union. These countries were victims of the postwar division of Europe by the great powers because a state socialistic was imposed upon them from outside by the Soviet "external empire", that is through the Soviet rule beyond the borders of the Soviet Union. The emergence of the New World Order and the New European Architecture in the early 1990s meant for these young democracies that the processes of democratic transitions and European integration became intertwined. This work have focused on one particular dimensiori of the democratization process and one crucial respect in which East-Central European experiences differed from those earlier democratizations. I tried to unravel the major distinguishing features of the 1989 democratizations. On the basis of the above discussion, an analysis which focuses on elite strategy and leaderships choice helps considerably in constructing an explanation for the rapid pace of democratization shown by Hungary and Poland, hi both cases there were major splits within the elite which prepared the way for negotiation and the conclusion of political pacts, developments which have both been identified from the investigation of earlier cases of democratization as critical steps in the transition to democracy. The situation was however different in Czechoslovakia, where the regime remained authoritarian to the end, splits within the elite were largely absent and there were few sings of opposition within the broader society. Nevertheless Czechoslovakia, and particularly (since the beginning of 1993) the Czech Republic, certainly moved forward after 1989 in terms of democratization no less successfully than Hungary and Poland. |
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